Road construction
Contents |
[edit] The history of road construction
The methods of constructing roads have changed a lot since the first roads were built around 4,000 BC – made of stone and timber.
The first Roman roads were stone paved, built in North Africa and Europe for military operations. Road construction techniques were gradually improved by the study of road traffic, stone thickness, road alignment, and slope gradients, developing to use stones that were laid in a regular, compact design, and covered with smaller stones to produce a solid layer.
[edit] Modern road construction
Modern roads tend to be constructed using asphalt and/or concrete.
Very broadly, the construction of roads includes three processes:
[edit] Setting out
This is carried out following the dimensions specified in layout drawings.
A commonly used setting out procedure is the profile board method. A series of boards that show the exact level 1 metre above the completed construction level are placed at intervals along the proposed line of the road. A profile board with a fixed height, called the traveller, is used for controlling the excavated levels between these profile boards. By placing the traveller in the sight-line between two level boards, it can be seen whether or not the excavation has been carried out to correct levels and adjusted accordingly.
The level of each profile board is controlled using a line level which is a short spirit level hung from a nylon string. The line operator moves the string up or down until the bubble is centred.
Junctions, hammer heads, turning bays and intersecting curves can be laid out in a similar manner.
[edit] Earthworks
Earthworks involve the removal of topsoil, along with any vegetation, before scraping and grading the area to the finished ‘formation level’. This is usually done using a tractor shovel, grader or bulldozer. Below the formation level, the soil is known as the ‘subgrade’. It is essential that the strength of the subgrade is tested prior to earthworks beginning.
Most earthworks are formed by cut-and-fill, and the type of ‘fill’ material must be considered, not only in terms of its physical properties, but on the conditions in which it is to be used, and the methods of compaction.
Depending on its quality, compressible subsoil may be removed or stabilised. If the cost of full or partial excavation of subsoil is uneconomical and would be likely to result in consolidation, sand wicks or sand drains may be used. Sand wicks are sand-filled boreholes beneath the road embankment that give greater stability to the soil by decreasing the length that water has to travel in a drainage path, so dissipating water pressure. Sand drains alongside the road are used to intercept ground water.
Subsoil drainage should be provided to deal with seepage through pavements and verges, from higher ground and a result of the seasonal rise and fall of the water table.
[edit] Subgrade strength
The required thickness of the pavement is determined by the subgrade strength, so it is desirable to make the subgrade as strong as possible.
The strength of the subgrade can be achieved by using the following techniques:
- Removal of poor material in cuttings and replacing with selected fill.
- Compacting subgrade to a high dry density.
- Providing adequate subsoil drainage.
- Soil stabilisation methods such as the use of cement, bituminous materials or chemicals.
Subgrade strength will decrease as moisture content increases so protection may be required if it is to left exposed for any length of time. Protection covering can be either:
[edit] Paving construction
Once the subgrade has been prepared and drainage or buried services installed, the paving construction can begin. Paving can be either flexible or rigid. There are pros and cons to each type, with one being selected over the other depending on the specific needs of a project.
Rigid pavements tend to have lower maintenance costs, a longer design life and higher flexural strength; but flexible pavements tend to have lower construction costs and a better ability to expand and contract with temperature and so do not need expansion joints.
[edit] Flexible paving
Flexible paving consists of materials applied in layers directly over the subgrade onto which the traffic loads are distributed. To prevent permanent deformation, and therefore an uneven running surface, the thicknesses of individual layers must be capable of distributing such loads. The subgrade is compacted with the sub-base on top of it. On top of this the surfacing is laid which is made up of the base layer and the wearing course.
[edit] Surfacing
The wearing course is the upper layer of bituminous material, often denser and stronger than the base layer. The thickness depends on the material specification and the amount of wear that is expected. Desired properties are good non-skid capabilities, minimal glare and acceptable durability.
The main materials that are used are hot rolled asphalt (HRA), dense bitumen macadam (DBM), dense tar macadam (DTM) and porous asphalt (PA). Porous asphalt is especially suitable as it is an open-graded material that is designed to allow rapid drainage of surface water, thereby reducing spray as well as tyre noise.
The base will typically have a minimum thickness of 60 mm and is usually made of dense bitumen macadam or asphalt. It is laid with the appropriate crossfalls and gradients.
[edit] Sub-base
This is placed in a layer usually not exceeding 150 mm over the subgrade after waterproofing is complete. Various materials can be used but it is common for crushed stone or dry lean concrete (such as 1:15) laid and compacted by heavy rollers. Cellular Concrete (Foamed Concrete) is another material that can be used for the sub-base, the thickness and strength required depends upon the type of road.
[edit] Rigid paving
Rigid paving consists of a reinforced or unreinforced insitu concrete laid over a thin granular base. The rigidity and strength of the pavement enables the loads and stresses to be distributed over a wide area of the subgrade.
Rigid paving is typically made up of the following layers (from bottom to top):
- Subgrade.
- Sub-base of thick crushed stone. Usually to a thickness of 80 mm.
- Anti-friction membrane normally made of polythene sheeting. This also prevents grout loss from the freshly laid concrete.
- Insitu concrete paving slab. Reinforcement in the form of either steel fabric or re-bar may be used.
- Asphalt or similar topping if required.
Longitudinal and transverse joints are required in rigid paving between the slabs, limiting the stresses applied due to subgrade restraint (friction between the pavement and subgrade), and providing room for expansion and contraction movements. The spacing of road joints is determined by:
- The hickness of the slab.
- Whether there is reinforcement in the slab or not.
- The expected traffic load and flow rate.
- The temperature at which the concrete is laid.
For more information, see
[edit] Related articles on Designing Buildings
- Bitumen binder may delay road surface deterioration.
- Bituminous mixing and laying plant.
- Britain's historic paving.
- Choosing road surfacing specialists.
- Code of Practice for Ironwork Systems Installation and Refurbishment.
- Glossary of paving terms.
- Gravel v hardcore v aggregates.
- Highway authority.
- Highway drainage.
- Mobile asphalt stations.
- Movement joint.
- NEC contracts - road development and management schemes.
- Overview of the road development process.
- Pavement.
- Road joints.
- Road traffic management.
- Roadworks.
- Street works.
- Successful road kerb trial.
- Types of road and street.
- Vision and validate: a third way in designing the roads of the future.
- What are smart motorways and how do they work?
[edit] External references
- ‘Introduction to civil engineering construction’ (3rd ed.), HOLMES, R., The College of Estate Management (1995)
- ‘Building Construction Handbook’ (6th ed.), CHUDLEY, R., GREENO, R., Butterworth-Heinemann (2007)
Featured articles and news
Recharging Electrical Skills in Wales
Step by step collaborative solutions.
Ireland budget announcement 2025
CIOB responds with positivity, criticism and clarity.
The continued ISG fall out, where to go?
Support for ISG contractors, companies and employees.
New HES national centre for traditional building retrofit
Announced as HES publishes survey results which reveal strong support for retrofit.
Retrofit of Buildings, a CIOB Technical Publication
Expected to become one of the largest activities in the global construction industry.
Scope determination appeals and the Building Safety Act
Process explained following release of appeals guidance.
The ECA industry focus video channel
Keeping update with the industry session by session.
Over 25 recorded informations sessions freely available.
AT Awards 2024 ceremony East London October 25th.
Revisiting the AT community at the 2023 awards evening.
The Community Housing Fund and built affordable homes
CLTN reviews the impact of the Fund and calls for extension.
The grading system of the Regulator for Social Housing
A background, an explanation and ten recent enforcements.
Construction, repair and maintenance. Book review.
Putting new life into a city with a 1900 year history.
BSRIA Briefing 2024: Sustainable Futures speakers
Redefining Retrofit for Net Zero Living 22 Nov.
Wall of support for post-Grenfell regulation of electricians
Call for a shake-up of the construction industry highlighted on radio.
Digital sustainability through future AEC tools
Bringing together industry and academia to meet challenges.
Comments
[edit] To make a comment about this article, click 'Add a comment' above. Separate your comments from any existing comments by inserting a horizontal line.