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User:RobPollard

2012-12-10T16:08:03Z

RobPollard: Created page with " Robert Pollard University of Kent MArch - 5th year architecture rmjp2@kent.ac.uk"

Robert Pollard

University of Kent

MArch - 5th year architecture

rmjp2@kent.ac.uk

The architects' profession

2012-12-03T13:41:59Z

RobPollard: Protected "THE HISTORY OF THE ARCHITECT AS A PROFESSION": quality control ([edit=author] (indefinite) [move=author] (indefinite))

The architects' profession

2012-12-03T13:39:17Z

RobPollard:

The architects' profession

2012-12-03T13:33:22Z

RobPollard: Created page with " '''THE HISTORY OF THE ARCHITECT AS A PROFESSION ''' '''Introduction''' The term architect has been in existence for many centuries however the architect as its own rec..."

'''THE HISTORY OF THE ARCHITECT AS A PROFESSION '''

'''Introduction'''

The term architect has been in existence for many centuries however the architect as its own recognised profession is a relatively modern concept. The term and what it represents has evolved through history to its current form in which architects are seen today as highly qualified and educated professionals. However this hasn’t always been the case, and as through history the need for architects grows, so does the need for the architectural profession, to govern, monitor and educate. The need for architects comes to fruition through various circumstances in different times in History across the world, mainly spurred by political, cultural, religious and economical development in each particular region.

'''Origins of architecture'''

'''THE HISTORY OF THE ARCHITECT AS A PROFESSION '''

'''Introduction'''

The term architect has been in existence for many centuries however the architect as its own recognised profession is a relatively modern concept. The term and what it represents has evolved through history to its current form in which architects are seen today as highly qualified and educated professionals. However this hasn’t always been the case, and as through history the need for architects grows, so does the need for the architectural profession, to govern, monitor and educate. The need for architects comes to fruition through various circumstances in different times in History across the world, mainly spurred by political, cultural, religious and economical development in each particular region.

'''Origins of architecture'''

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpgfile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gifIt is often assumed that architecture as a profession dates back to the ancient Greeks, the Egyptians or the Romans Egyptians and although the origins of the word date back to these times, it wasn’t until much later in history that the Architect became a recognised profession in its own right. Vitruvius Pollio (born c. 80–70 BC, died after c. 15 BC), is often considered as the first recognisable resemblance of an architect. He is recognised as the great Roman writer, engineer and builder. However Vitruvius wasn’t strictly an architect and didn’t conform to how we perceive the architect as a profession. After this period, the term architect is almost unheard of and individuals fade into history, overshadowed by religious or political figures. In fact the finding by Florentine scholar Poggio Bracciolini of Vitruvius lost great book, De architectura (English: On architecture, published as Ten Books on Architecture) during the early Renaissance period influenced and inspired the movement and arguably was a large contributor to developing the architect as a profession in its own right. The book was an attempt, in part, to summarize the professional knowledge of his day, much of which derived from Greek precedent, his testimony is vital. Vitruvius is explicit about the graphic conventions of Classical design: plans, elevations, and perspective views⁽¹⁾. Various economical, political and social factors specific to continents, regions, countries and even cities also triggered the need for architects at this time in history however and their prominence in society begins to develop from the late 15th century.

'''Origins of the profession in Europe'''

The modern day term ‘Architects’ and its use of the word dates back to the mid 16th century: from French ''architecte'' and Italian ''architetto'', via Latin from Greek ''arkhitektōn'', from ''arkhi-'' 'chief' + ''tektōn'' 'builder' where the word originates from.

In fact Italy and the flourishing renaissance period is where we can find the first examples of architecture and architects being developed into its own discipline and profession. The practice of architecture, as we understand it today, was not yet a recognised profession, and unlike the painter or sculptor, the designer of buildings did not have his clearly defined place within the trades. There was no standard training for those wishing to engage in architecture, there was no guild devoted specifically to the professional interests of architects, and the men who made the plans for churches and palaces were ranked with humble artisans, with scholars putting their knowledge to practical purposes⁽⁴⁾. However evidence of the emergence of the architectural profession beginning to form as an independent discipline can be seen in 1550 with Giorgio Vasari publishing the first edition of his history of Italian artists called The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects.

This period in history is also surrounded in much political, social and economical turmoil leading up to the birth of the Renaissance with historians taking into account factors such as the last remnants of the Roman empire and the great city of Rome fading away into disrepair, the black death devastating a third of central Europe’s population resulting in labour shortages and therefore an increase in wages. This also resulted in a wealthier and more developed population with newly inherited land, religion as the forefront of society is being questioned and the pursuit of art and education comes to fruition. This argument is emphasised by European economic historian Robert Sabatino Lopez who argues that these economic and social factors contributed to the rise of the renaissance period in Italy.

Later French writer Philibert Delorme begins to take influence from the movements in Italy and is influenced by the idea of the architect as a profession. He envisaged a self-governing profession of specialists with accepted standards of training and clearly defined responsibilities and privileges. In his ''Premier tome de l’architecture'', published in 1567, he defined the spheres appropriate to the patron, the architect, and the workman and set up guidelines for their working relation. What makes Philiberts view of the profession so much more focussed than anything before is that he outspokenly contrasted his architect to those who designed buildings but were not, in his view, architects. Patrons, he said, should employ architects instead of turning to “some master mason or master carpenter as is the custom or to some painter, some notary or some other person who is supposed to be qualified but more often than not has no better judgement than the patron himself”. ⁽⁵⁾ In separating himself from the carpenter or mason, Philibert was making a clear social distinction between the disciplines. The architect was pushing to present himself as the professional practitioner of a liberal art form. This view was relatively new in France but was already well established in Italy. During this time in France it was the masons and carpenters as refered to by Philibert that had been given the powers to control the construction and design of the Royal works in France. For example, Francis I had employed the powerful Parisian mason Gilles le Breton for his Royal works and these such men were organised in a close knit system that help a monopoly over the architectural design and construction at this time.

In other parts of Europe such as Spain the building trades have more dependence on large building programmes and the people working within the building trades were less strict and not as organised as in France. Master builders didn’t have their own guild and training took place on the job, with a career path of steady promotions through the construction team through on site labour, usually beginning at mason or stone cutter if he had aspirations to become a master builder. In spain, as in France, this type of system ran smoothly with the master builder having the privallage to be the designer at the head of the organization. This close knit group had its own builders guild which didn’t appreachiate outside interference and looked at the rise of the architect as restricting on them and taking away power, with this in mind they would often conspire to work against a project architect as was the case when Italian architect Serlio was hired for a commission in France by Francis I.

Something similar happened in spain when, in the reighn of Philip II, the master builders found themselves displaced first by architects imported from Italy and then by the courtier and ameture architect, Juan de Herrera⁽⁶⁾.

'''Origins of the profession in Britain'''

=== The word architect first appeared in the English Oxford Dictionary in 1563, the definition of the word architect is as follows; ===
*a person who designs buildings and in many cases also supervises their construction: ''the great Norman architect of Durham Cathedral''
*a person who is responsible for inventing or realizing a particular idea or project: ''the architects of the reform programme''

The date that the word first appeared in the Oxford dictionary is significant as this is around the time that many British architectural historians date the birth of the architectural profession in the UK. In 1534 Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church of England in an attempt to banish the Catholic Church, this was due to the refusal of the church to grant him a divorce. At the time the church had a monopoly over the country and was the largest land owner in Britain, as well as having great wealth and political power. Henry primarily wanted to abolish the church and make himself head of the Church of England to gain divorce and to allow him to remarry, however the apparent wealth and land ownership of the church lured him into forcing out the Catholic Church in its entirety. To emphasise this he dismantled or burnt down the majority of significant cathedrals and monasteries across England and claimed their wealth and land for himself, of which he split with his vast array of Friends and the Royal court.

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.giffile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpgOne of the first Englishmen to call himself “architect” was John Shute, who in 1563, five years after the accession of Elizabeth, did so in his publication ''The First and Chief Groundes of Architecture''. Shute’s origins are still uncertain, but he seems to have trained as a painter and been sent to Italy in 1550 by his employer, the Duke of Northumberland⁽²⁾. Shute’s ideas and writings did inspire and influence others at the time and reflected the aspirations of the architectural patrons of the post Reformation era, with the new land owning politicians, civil servants and nouveaux-riches such as the Cecils of Burghley and Hatfield or John Thynne of Longleat. These newly inspired architects would often travel to Italy as part of their apprenticeship and brought back a new renaissance inspired style of architecture that would replace the Gothic idiom. However despite the use of the word ‘architect’ being born around this time, architectural historian John Summerson claims “even then it was still restricted to craftsmen who were able to apply the new classical techniques, rather than generally, of master builders” ⁽³⁾.

Up until this point the state and church had designed and built its own buildings ‘in-house’ and no standout individuals are particularly know that contributed to them. However with the new influx of wealthy land owners Henry had created through dividing the catholic churches assets, there was now a very apparent need for architects to design and build new homes and landmarks to signify the new wealth of these individuals. This coincided around the time of the Renaissance period in which many new architects were travelling to Italy and returning to Britain inspired at the possibilities.

'''The first Architects'''

Arguably the first solely practicing architect as we would view the profession today is Palladio who worked almost entirely in what was the Venetian Republic in Italy. Palladio is regarded as the greatest and most prominent architect of the 16th century whose career was based almost entirely upon the Vicenzan and Venetian nobles for whom he designed palaces and country estates that were both elegant houses and practical centres for the farming investments of their owners. His reputation was seemingly established by his successful entry in the 1549 competition to remodel the city council hall in Vicenza – the so called Basilica – but his numerous villa designs (over twenty are illustrated in his ''Quattro Libri'', published in Venice in 1570) and palace projects formed the bulk of his practice. The commissions for churches, which were more expensive as well as more prestigious, did not come until his later years⁽⁷⁾. What also makes Palladio very comparable to the architect of modern times is his experimentation and use of various materials to suit individual clients needs and just as importantly, their budget. Many of his buildings are of brick faced with stucco to portray his interpretation of the Roman villa typology. His place in history as an architect is not only based on the beauty of his work but also for the variety of clients, varying scale of buildings and the harmony with the culture at his time.

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpgfile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif

The conduct of an architect’s practice varied enormously in the sixteenth century, but it is clear from records that architects like Palladio and Alessi had a larger number of commissions than their predecessors. Neither Palladio nor Alessi was attached to a court or to great patrons, and they were not obliged to supervise construction although they often did. This is a notable change from the 15th century when, at the time Alberti wrote, there were only a handful of men who he might consider to be architects according to his definition of them.

'''Governing bodies'''

Historically the higher social standing for the architect to be perceived as its own profession also had a negative aspect as without an established guild, qualification or any legal safeguards for practice almost anyone could call themselves an architect, and the architect had very few if any legal comforts to protect them. A powerful patron may call in other architects at his pleasure or even cancel a project at an advanced stage. This happened with Michelangelo’s designs for the facade of the church of S.Lorenzo in Florence. Michelangelo won the commission and spent almost two years supervising the quarrying of marble blocks, however Clement VII cancelled the contract after this period and the project came to nothing with very little payment being exchanged.

The Royal Building Administration in France was the closest early resemblance to a governing body of architects, this was formed during the reign of Charles V (1364-80) and was designed to maintain good standards within the builders and masons guilds, however although architects when they come to fruition in France have to work by these standards, they do not relate specifically or solely to architects.

The establishment of governing bodies and institutes for architects gives an interesting insight into which countries felt architecture and architects were of enough importance to be regulated. The major powers historically in this are seen as Britain, Italy, France, Germany and USA however each had very different opinions of how architects should be regulated and what should be required for architecture as a profession. Despite Britain being the first to establish a governing body, it was the last of the five to establish an educational body for architects to train in the discipline.

Some countries such as France are governed regionally rather than by an overall national body, however with current EU regulations and various international agreements there are also many other ‘umbrella’ organisations that interlink architectural bodies.

The significance of the formation of governing architectural bodies is vital in understanding the social, economical and legal importance that the architectural profession is viewed in individual parts of the world and therefore the intent to regulate symbolises an important shift from the artist or master builder to the professional practitioner.

Below is a list of governing bodies in order of their inception:

'''Governing body for Architects'''

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.jpgfile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.gif

Britain

1834 – Institute of British architects founded

1837 – Royal charter granted

1997 - ARB

Ireland

1839 - Royal Institute of Architects of Ireland

Holland

1842 - Royal Institute of Dutch Architects (BNA)

USA

1857 - American Institute of Architects (AIA)

Poland

1877 – reformed in 1899 – Union of Polish Architects (SARP)

Denmark

1879 - The Architects' Association of Denmark

Japan

1887 – The Japan Institute of Architects (Zouka Gakkai)

Romania

1891 - Union of Architects of Romania (UAR)

'''South Africa'''

1899 & later 1927 National institutes merged in 1996 - The South African Institute of Architects SAIA

Philippines

1902 - United Architects of the Philippines (UAP)

Germany

1903 - Association of German Architects BDA

New Zealand

1905 – The New Zealand Institute of architects

1963 - Reformed under the Architects Act 1963 which split its previous functions in two. The New Zealand Institute of Architects became the professional organisation for Architects, and the regulatory functions transferred to the Architects Education and Registration Board (AERB), now the New Zealand Registered Architects Board

Canada

1907 - The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada

Uruguay

Formed 1914 , legal status granted in 1921 - The Society of Architects of Uruguay (SAU)

India

1917 - The Indian Institute of Architects

Egypt

1917 - Society of Egyptian Architects (SEA)

Malaysia

1920 - Malaysian Institute of Architects (PAM)

Brazil

1921 - Institute of Architects of Brazil (IAB)

Australia

1930 - The Australian Institute of Architects

Spain

1931 – Superior Council of Colleges of Architects of Spain (CASCAE)

Lebanon

1934 - Order of Architects and Engineers (OEA)

France

1940 – Validated in 1945 – Ile-de-France Association of Architects Currently regulated under 1948 - International Union of Architects and regionally governed under 1977- Ordre Des Architectes

China

1953 – Architectural Society of China

Hong Kong

1956 - The Hong Kong Institute of Architects

Sri Lanka

1957 - Sri Lanka Institute of Architects

Fiji

1957 - Fiji Association of Architects

Nigeria

1960 - '''The Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA)'''

Singapore

1961 - Singapore Institute of Architects

Republic of Korea

1965 - Korea Institute of Registered Architects (KIRA)

Argentina

1969 – reformed in 1988 - Argentina Federation of Organizations of Architects (FADEA)

Bangladesh

1972 - Institute of Architects Bangladesh

Pakistan

1975 - The Institute of Architects, Pakistan (IAP)

Belgium

1977 - Conseil national de l'ordre des architects

Trinidad and Tobago

Established 1988, given legal governance in 1992 - Institute of Architects of Trinidad and Tobago (TTIA)

Luxemburg

1989 - Order of Architects and Engineers (OAI)

=== Czech Republic ===

=== 1992 - Czech Chamber of Architects ===

Russia

1992 - Union of Architects of Russia (UAR)

'''Schools of Architecture'''

For almost the entirety of history architecture has relied on the passing of drawings, sketches and texts without any formal training. Architecture is seen as one of the arts and as such has taken influence from paintings, sculpture, poetry and many other artistic disciplines. In Italy there were certainly architectural workshops in the sixteenth century, although we know very little about them and they were not recognised by academics.

The first school of architecture was established in France when the French state created a new method of reproduction with the formation of a school intended to train architects, the École des Beaux Arts. Through the next century and a half, the field's reproduction system gradually became embedded in national higher education systems and as such, other countries followed suit. The history of the governing body to builders and masons in France, the Royal Building Administration, is of utmost importance as it influenced the organization of the modern architectural office. Its delegation of the tasks of busness administration, drafting, planning, site inspection, and engineering contributed to the way in which architects work today in large offices⁽⁸⁾. It also later went on to set the standard and curriculum that the École des Beaux Arts had to work to.

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpgfile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.gifThe École des Beaux Arts later acted as a model for America, who saught to create their own identity and style by improving the practice of architecture and through better education. This influence became particularly strong towards the end of the nineteenth century when architects had become independent and were recognised as specialists in their own right, with many wanting to be perceived as not just an independent field but as academics within that field. America recognised that the success of École des Beaux Arts was based on a well organised curriculum, government patronage and a rational design theory. The long established French system was backed by American architects who had also been rallying at this time for their own state licensing laws. After this a number of architectural schools in the USA began to appear and would often seek École des Beaux Arts graduates as lecturers and staff. However not all supported this system with Loius Sulivan, who had studied at the Ecole in 1874, and Frank Lloyd Wright, who turned down Daniel Burnhams offer of four sponsored years in Paris, were the most influential detractors of the school. They called its teachings artificial, superficial, and totally unsuited to American needs⁽⁹⁾.

This is the time when architecture evolved from being a practical taught and refined through generations to an academic discipline, making the architect a professional amongst the likes of Doctors, Physicists, and lawyers. Parts of Europe and later USA followed with this academic method of training however Britain continued with its natural mode of education through is the self-controlling mechanism of apprenticeship. “This was a modification of the medieval apprenticeship system. But where an apprentice exchanged his labour for instruction from a master, an articled pupil paid cash to be taught. Probably something like one-half of all entrants to the occupation were trained through pupillage by 1800, rising very quickly in the opening decades of the nineteenth century to displace other entry points into the occupation, such as through the building trades. Pupillage usually lasted five or six years, and often included attendance at a local arts academy, and perhaps foreign travel” ⁽¹⁰⁾.

Below is a list of details relating to the first major academic institutes for architecture as a profession:

France

Founded in 1671, made independent by Napoléon III 1863 - The École des Beaux Arts

Austria

1772 - Academy fine arts, Vienna - Institute for Art and Architecture.

Germany

1832 - Building Academy (Bauakademie)

USA

1868 - MIT School of Architecture and Planning

UK

1889 - The Architectural Association (AA) offered the first full time course in Architecture, however the first Degree in Architecture was offered by The Cambridge School of Architecture in 1912

According to national records in the Dictionary of National Biography, the entry into the profession of architects in the UK during the eighteenth century onwards shows a very varied pupilage and background with no confirmative way or route to becoming an architect. This is demonstrated in the below tables.

{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Fathers social Status

| colspan="8" style="width:493px;" |
Date of recruitment to the architectural profession

|-
| style="width:123px;height:32px;" |

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
Up to 1789

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1790-1819

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1820-1849

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1850 on

No %

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Upper Class

| style="width:62px;" |
4

| style="width:62px;" |
9

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
6

| style="width:62px;" |
15

| style="width:62px;" |
16

| style="width:62px;" |
7

| style="width:62px;" |
16

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Middle Class

| style="width:62px;" |
10

| style="width:62px;" |
23

| style="width:62px;" |
36

| style="width:62px;" |
40

| style="width:62px;" |
39

| style="width:62px;" |
41

| style="width:62px;" |
23

| style="width:62px;" |
51

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Working Class

| style="width:62px;" |
8

| style="width:62px;" |
18

| style="width:62px;" |
24

| style="width:62px;" |
27

| style="width:62px;" |
8

| style="width:62px;" |
9

| style="width:62px;" |
1

| style="width:62px;" |
2

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
No details

| style="width:62px;" |
22

| style="width:62px;" |
50

| style="width:62px;" |
24

| style="width:62px;" |
27

| style="width:62px;" |
32

| style="width:62px;" |
34

| style="width:62px;" |
14

| style="width:62px;" |
31

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Total

| style="width:62px;" |
44

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
89

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
94

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
45

| style="width:62px;" |
100

|}

{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Form of Training

| colspan="8" style="width:493px;" |
Date of recruitment to the architectural profession

|-
| style="width:123px;height:32px;" |

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
Up to 1789

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1790-1819

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1820-1849

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1850 on

No %

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
a

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
7

| style="width:62px;" |
11

| style="width:62px;" |
12

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
0

| style="width:62px;" |
0

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
b

| style="width:62px;" |
17

| style="width:62px;" |
39

| style="width:62px;" |
56

| style="width:62px;" |
63

| style="width:62px;" |
71

| style="width:62px;" |
76

| style="width:62px;" |
35

| style="width:62px;" |
78

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
c

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
7

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
6

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
0

| style="width:62px;" |
0

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
d

| style="width:62px;" |
8

| style="width:62px;" |
18

| style="width:62px;" |
14

| style="width:62px;" |
16

| style="width:62px;" |
2

| style="width:62px;" |
2

| style="width:62px;" |
7

| style="width:62px;" |
16

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
No details

| style="width:62px;" |
13

| style="width:62px;" |
30

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
11

| style="width:62px;" |
12

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
7

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Total

| style="width:62px;" |
44

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
89

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
94

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
45

| style="width:62px;" |
100

|}

a – apprentice to a builder

b – articled to an architect

c – trained for another occupation

d – Other architectural training, e.g private study, travel abroad etc⁽¹¹⁾

'''Modern conventions'''

In contrast to the diverse and varied entry route to the profession in Britain and much of Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries, the entry route to becoming a practicing architect in modern times has become far more conventional. Most of Europe and the USA all enforce architectural practice through their governing bodies which as well as setting laws and codes of conduct to adhere to whilst in practice, they also very often set the curriculum to be taught in University schools of architecture. The most common route into the architectural profession in Britain today (almost 96%) is through university study which is broken down into: Part 1 – Honours degree in architecture. This is followed by 1 year out in practice under the guidance of an architect post part 1 completion. This year out period should also be monitored and recorded in line with RIBA requirements. Part 2 - Masters or Diploma (depending on individual school) follows on from the year in practice which is again taught in university lasting 2 to 3 years, this is followed by another monitored and recorded year in practice before entry onto part 3 and the RIBA final exam, which once complete the title of architect is granted use.

The roles within a working practice have also become far more defined and restricted and positions in a typical UK based practice would include:

· Architectural Assistants – Training architects before part 3 completion, these are often broken down into Part 1 assistants and Part 2 assistants.

· Architectural technicians/technologists – Often taken up by assistants who do not return to academic training post either part 1 or part 2 completion however continue to work within the industry. Or often seen as its own specialist discipline within the practice relating to construction and technical issue, architectural technologist can study this subject as a separate degree and become members of CIAT (Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists and Technicians.

· A newly qualified Part 3 architect – often working under the guidance of a project architect.

· Project architect – Given most of the responsibilities involved with running a job with occasional guidance prom a director

· Associate Directors – often viewed as a junior director who has responsibility of overseeing several project architects

· Directors & Senior Directors – Oversee associate directors and are often not particularly involved in any single project. Most common for time to be spent with new clients or overseeing the management of the practice

· Principle – Head of that particular office

· Partner – Shareholder in the practice, often in smaller companies the directors or principle make up the Partners

'''References'''

1. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.15)

2. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.180)

3. Barrington Kaye, 1960 (p.32)

4. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.97)

5. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.125)

6. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.132)

7. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.129)

8. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.161)

9. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.216)

10. Dr Garry Stevens, 2001, Key Centre for Architectural sociology

11. Barrington Kaye, 1960 (p.48)

'''Bibliography'''

John Shute, The First and Chief Groundes of Architecture, (1563)

· E.Harris (1990)

· Lewis & Darley (1986)

· Shute (1563)

· Summerson (ed.) (1993)

· Jane Turner (1996)

·

Dr Garry Stevens, 2001, Key Centre for Architectural sociology

http://www.archsoc.com/kcas/Historyed.html#Z4

Andrew Saint, The Image of the Architect, Yale University Press; First Edition edition, 1983

Harry Francis Mallgrave, Architectural theory Vol II Anthology from 1871-2005, Blackwell publishing, 2008

Kenneth Frampton and Yukio Futagawa. [http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/glk?http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0064300862/artificeinc Modern Architecture 1851-1945], New York, N.Y publishings, 1983

Moffett, Marian / Fazio, Micheal / Wodehouse, Lawrence, 2003, A Worlds History of Architecture, Lawrence King Publishing, 2003

Sir John Summerson , The Classical Language of Architecture (originally published 1963), Thames & Hudson; Revised edition edition (23 Jun 1980)

Henry Wotton – The Elements of Architecture (1624) – online :http://www.archive.org/stream/elementsarchite00wottgoog#page/n20/mode/2up

Spiro Kostof, The Architect – Chapters in the History of the Profession, University of California Press, 1977, rereleased in 2000

= Barrington Kaye, The Development of the Architectural Proffession in Britain, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1960 =

= Web references =

[http://www.aia.org/ www.aia.org]

[http://www.arkitektforeningen.dk/aa/uk/AA http://www.arkitektforeningen.dk/aa/uk/AA]

[http://www.ace-cae.org/ http://www.ace-cae.org]

[http://www.aij.or.jp/aijhome.htm www.aij.or.jp/aijhome.htm]

[http://www.asbea.org.br/ http://www.asbea.org.br/]

[http://www.asa.or.th/ http://www.asa.or.th]

[http://www.meszorg.hu/ http://www.meszorg.hu/]

[http://www.architectes-fr.com/CIAF/ http://www.architectes-fr.com/CIAF/]

[http://www.architectes.org/ http://www.architectes.org]

[http://www.ordredesarchitectes.be/ http://www.ordredesarchitectes.be/]

[http://www.fadea.org/ www.fadea.org]

[http://www.kia.or.kr/ http://www.kia.or.kr/]

[http://www.iia-india.org/ http://www.iia-india.org]

[http://www.iap.com.pk/ http://www.iap.com.pk]

[http://www.iranarcs.com/ http://www.iranarcs.com/]

[http://www.jia.or.jp/ http://www.jia.or.jp/]

[http://www.nav.be/ http://www.nav.be/]

[http://www.nzia.co.nz/default.aspx?c=246&t=Home http://www.nzia.co.nz/default.aspx?c=246&t=Home]

[http://www.raic.org/ www.raic.org/]

[http://www.raia.com.au/ www.raia.com.au]

[http://www.riai.ie/ http://www.riai.ie/]

[http://www.riba.org/go/RIBA/Home.html http://www.riba.org/go/RIBA/Home.html]

[http://www.bna.nl/home/Welkom_bij_de.BNA?VarHtmlPage=home/dhtmlHomeFrameset.htm http://www.bna.nl/home/Welkom_bij_de.BNA?VarHtmlPage=home/dhtmlHomeFrameset.htm]

[http://www.cka.cc/ http://www.cka.cc/]

[http://www.saia.org.za/ http://www.saia.org.za/]

[http://www.uar.ru/ http://www.uar.ru/]

[http://www.sarp.org.pl/ http://www.sarp.org.pl/]

[http://www.uap-online.org/ http://www.uap-online.org]

[http://www.akbild.ac.at/portal_en/academyen/about-us/history http://www.akbild.ac.at/portal_en/academyen/about-us/history]

Image references

1. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus (ca 90-20 B.C.). De architectura libri dece. Translated by Cesare Cesariano (1475-1543) http://www.christies.com/LotFinder/lot_details.aspx?intObjectID=5156024

'''2. ''''''Burghley House''' '''Engraving: from 'Architectural Remains of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I, C.J. Richardson (1840)''' '''Source: RIBA British Architectural Library'''

3. Chiesa del Redentore, Venice Architect: Andrea Palladio (1576). Photographer unknown (c.1870) Source: RIBA Library Photographs Collection

4. Royal Institute of British Architects, 66 Portland Place, London: the main elevation, 1934. Dell and Wainwright. Picture courtesy of RIBA Library Photographs Collection.

5. École des Beaux Arts, 1872 -http://content.lib.washington.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/buildings&CISOPTR=12344&CISOBOX=1&REC=5

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpgfile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gifIt is often assumed that architecture as a profession dates back to the ancient Greeks, the Egyptians or the Romans Egyptians and although the origins of the word date back to these times, it wasn’t until much later in history that the Architect became a recognised profession in its own right. Vitruvius Pollio (born c. 80–70 BC, died after c. 15 BC), is often considered as the first recognisable resemblance of an architect. He is recognised as the great Roman writer, engineer and builder. However Vitruvius wasn’t strictly an architect and didn’t conform to how we perceive the architect as a profession. After this period, the term architect is almost unheard of and individuals fade into history, overshadowed by religious or political figures. In fact the finding by Florentine scholar Poggio Bracciolini of Vitruvius lost great book, De architectura (English: On architecture, published as Ten Books on Architecture) during the early Renaissance period influenced and inspired the movement and arguably was a large contributor to developing the architect as a profession in its own right. The book was an attempt, in part, to summarize the professional knowledge of his day, much of which derived from Greek precedent, his testimony is vital. Vitruvius is explicit about the graphic conventions of Classical design: plans, elevations, and perspective views⁽¹⁾. Various economical, political and social factors specific to continents, regions, countries and even cities also triggered the need for architects at this time in history however and their prominence in society begins to develop from the late 15th century.

'''Origins of the profession in Europe'''

The modern day term ‘Architects’ and its use of the word dates back to the mid 16th century: from French ''architecte'' and Italian ''architetto'', via Latin from Greek ''arkhitektōn'', from ''arkhi-'' 'chief' + ''tektōn'' 'builder' where the word originates from.

In fact Italy and the flourishing renaissance period is where we can find the first examples of architecture and architects being developed into its own discipline and profession. The practice of architecture, as we understand it today, was not yet a recognised profession, and unlike the painter or sculptor, the designer of buildings did not have his clearly defined place within the trades. There was no standard training for those wishing to engage in architecture, there was no guild devoted specifically to the professional interests of architects, and the men who made the plans for churches and palaces were ranked with humble artisans, with scholars putting their knowledge to practical purposes⁽⁴⁾. However evidence of the emergence of the architectural profession beginning to form as an independent discipline can be seen in 1550 with Giorgio Vasari publishing the first edition of his history of Italian artists called The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects.

This period in history is also surrounded in much political, social and economical turmoil leading up to the birth of the Renaissance with historians taking into account factors such as the last remnants of the Roman empire and the great city of Rome fading away into disrepair, the black death devastating a third of central Europe’s population resulting in labour shortages and therefore an increase in wages. This also resulted in a wealthier and more developed population with newly inherited land, religion as the forefront of society is being questioned and the pursuit of art and education comes to fruition. This argument is emphasised by European economic historian Robert Sabatino Lopez who argues that these economic and social factors contributed to the rise of the renaissance period in Italy.

Later French writer Philibert Delorme begins to take influence from the movements in Italy and is influenced by the idea of the architect as a profession. He envisaged a self-governing profession of specialists with accepted standards of training and clearly defined responsibilities and privileges. In his ''Premier tome de l’architecture'', published in 1567, he defined the spheres appropriate to the patron, the architect, and the workman and set up guidelines for their working relation. What makes Philiberts view of the profession so much more focussed than anything before is that he outspokenly contrasted his architect to those who designed buildings but were not, in his view, architects. Patrons, he said, should employ architects instead of turning to “some master mason or master carpenter as is the custom or to some painter, some notary or some other person who is supposed to be qualified but more often than not has no better judgement than the patron himself”. ⁽⁵⁾ In separating himself from the carpenter or mason, Philibert was making a clear social distinction between the disciplines. The architect was pushing to present himself as the professional practitioner of a liberal art form. This view was relatively new in France but was already well established in Italy. During this time in France it was the masons and carpenters as refered to by Philibert that had been given the powers to control the construction and design of the Royal works in France. For example, Francis I had employed the powerful Parisian mason Gilles le Breton for his Royal works and these such men were organised in a close knit system that help a monopoly over the architectural design and construction at this time.

In other parts of Europe such as Spain the building trades have more dependence on large building programmes and the people working within the building trades were less strict and not as organised as in France. Master builders didn’t have their own guild and training took place on the job, with a career path of steady promotions through the construction team through on site labour, usually beginning at mason or stone cutter if he had aspirations to become a master builder. In spain, as in France, this type of system ran smoothly with the master builder having the privallage to be the designer at the head of the organization. This close knit group had its own builders guild which didn’t appreachiate outside interference and looked at the rise of the architect as restricting on them and taking away power, with this in mind they would often conspire to work against a project architect as was the case when Italian architect Serlio was hired for a commission in France by Francis I.

Something similar happened in spain when, in the reighn of Philip II, the master builders found themselves displaced first by architects imported from Italy and then by the courtier and ameture architect, Juan de Herrera⁽⁶⁾.

'''Origins of the profession in Britain'''

=== The word architect first appeared in the English Oxford Dictionary in 1563, the definition of the word architect is as follows; ===
*a person who designs buildings and in many cases also supervises their construction: ''the great Norman architect of Durham Cathedral''
*a person who is responsible for inventing or realizing a particular idea or project: ''the architects of the reform programme''

The date that the word first appeared in the Oxford dictionary is significant as this is around the time that many British architectural historians date the birth of the architectural profession in the UK. In 1534 Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church of England in an attempt to banish the Catholic Church, this was due to the refusal of the church to grant him a divorce. At the time the church had a monopoly over the country and was the largest land owner in Britain, as well as having great wealth and political power. Henry primarily wanted to abolish the church and make himself head of the Church of England to gain divorce and to allow him to remarry, however the apparent wealth and land ownership of the church lured him into forcing out the Catholic Church in its entirety. To emphasise this he dismantled or burnt down the majority of significant cathedrals and monasteries across England and claimed their wealth and land for himself, of which he split with his vast array of Friends and the Royal court.

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.giffile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpgOne of the first Englishmen to call himself “architect” was John Shute, who in 1563, five years after the accession of Elizabeth, did so in his publication ''The First and Chief Groundes of Architecture''. Shute’s origins are still uncertain, but he seems to have trained as a painter and been sent to Italy in 1550 by his employer, the Duke of Northumberland⁽²⁾. Shute’s ideas and writings did inspire and influence others at the time and reflected the aspirations of the architectural patrons of the post Reformation era, with the new land owning politicians, civil servants and nouveaux-riches such as the Cecils of Burghley and Hatfield or John Thynne of Longleat. These newly inspired architects would often travel to Italy as part of their apprenticeship and brought back a new renaissance inspired style of architecture that would replace the Gothic idiom. However despite the use of the word ‘architect’ being born around this time, architectural historian John Summerson claims “even then it was still restricted to craftsmen who were able to apply the new classical techniques, rather than generally, of master builders” ⁽³⁾.

Up until this point the state and church had designed and built its own buildings ‘in-house’ and no standout individuals are particularly know that contributed to them. However with the new influx of wealthy land owners Henry had created through dividing the catholic churches assets, there was now a very apparent need for architects to design and build new homes and landmarks to signify the new wealth of these individuals. This coincided around the time of the Renaissance period in which many new architects were travelling to Italy and returning to Britain inspired at the possibilities.

'''The first Architects'''

Arguably the first solely practicing architect as we would view the profession today is Palladio who worked almost entirely in what was the Venetian Republic in Italy. Palladio is regarded as the greatest and most prominent architect of the 16th century whose career was based almost entirely upon the Vicenzan and Venetian nobles for whom he designed palaces and country estates that were both elegant houses and practical centres for the farming investments of their owners. His reputation was seemingly established by his successful entry in the 1549 competition to remodel the city council hall in Vicenza – the so called Basilica – but his numerous villa designs (over twenty are illustrated in his ''Quattro Libri'', published in Venice in 1570) and palace projects formed the bulk of his practice. The commissions for churches, which were more expensive as well as more prestigious, did not come until his later years⁽⁷⁾. What also makes Palladio very comparable to the architect of modern times is his experimentation and use of various materials to suit individual clients needs and just as importantly, their budget. Many of his buildings are of brick faced with stucco to portray his interpretation of the Roman villa typology. His place in history as an architect is not only based on the beauty of his work but also for the variety of clients, varying scale of buildings and the harmony with the culture at his time.

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpgfile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif

The conduct of an architect’s practice varied enormously in the sixteenth century, but it is clear from records that architects like Palladio and Alessi had a larger number of commissions than their predecessors. Neither Palladio nor Alessi was attached to a court or to great patrons, and they were not obliged to supervise construction although they often did. This is a notable change from the 15th century when, at the time Alberti wrote, there were only a handful of men who he might consider to be architects according to his definition of them.

'''Governing bodies'''

Historically the higher social standing for the architect to be perceived as its own profession also had a negative aspect as without an established guild, qualification or any legal safeguards for practice almost anyone could call themselves an architect, and the architect had very few if any legal comforts to protect them. A powerful patron may call in other architects at his pleasure or even cancel a project at an advanced stage. This happened with Michelangelo’s designs for the facade of the church of S.Lorenzo in Florence. Michelangelo won the commission and spent almost two years supervising the quarrying of marble blocks, however Clement VII cancelled the contract after this period and the project came to nothing with very little payment being exchanged.

The Royal Building Administration in France was the closest early resemblance to a governing body of architects, this was formed during the reign of Charles V (1364-80) and was designed to maintain good standards within the builders and masons guilds, however although architects when they come to fruition in France have to work by these standards, they do not relate specifically or solely to architects.

The establishment of governing bodies and institutes for architects gives an interesting insight into which countries felt architecture and architects were of enough importance to be regulated. The major powers historically in this are seen as Britain, Italy, France, Germany and USA however each had very different opinions of how architects should be regulated and what should be required for architecture as a profession. Despite Britain being the first to establish a governing body, it was the last of the five to establish an educational body for architects to train in the discipline.

Some countries such as France are governed regionally rather than by an overall national body, however with current EU regulations and various international agreements there are also many other ‘umbrella’ organisations that interlink architectural bodies.

The significance of the formation of governing architectural bodies is vital in understanding the social, economical and legal importance that the architectural profession is viewed in individual parts of the world and therefore the intent to regulate symbolises an important shift from the artist or master builder to the professional practitioner.

Below is a list of governing bodies in order of their inception:

'''Governing body for Architects'''

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.jpgfile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.gif

Britain

1834 – Institute of British architects founded

1837 – Royal charter granted

1997 - ARB

Ireland

1839 - Royal Institute of Architects of Ireland

Holland

1842 - Royal Institute of Dutch Architects (BNA)

USA

1857 - American Institute of Architects (AIA)

Poland

1877 – reformed in 1899 – Union of Polish Architects (SARP)

Denmark

1879 - The Architects' Association of Denmark

Japan

1887 – The Japan Institute of Architects (Zouka Gakkai)

Romania

1891 - Union of Architects of Romania (UAR)

'''South Africa'''

1899 & later 1927 National institutes merged in 1996 - The South African Institute of Architects SAIA

Philippines

1902 - United Architects of the Philippines (UAP)

Germany

1903 - Association of German Architects BDA

New Zealand

1905 – The New Zealand Institute of architects

1963 - Reformed under the Architects Act 1963 which split its previous functions in two. The New Zealand Institute of Architects became the professional organisation for Architects, and the regulatory functions transferred to the Architects Education and Registration Board (AERB), now the New Zealand Registered Architects Board

Canada

1907 - The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada

Uruguay

Formed 1914 , legal status granted in 1921 - The Society of Architects of Uruguay (SAU)

India

1917 - The Indian Institute of Architects

Egypt

1917 - Society of Egyptian Architects (SEA)

Malaysia

1920 - Malaysian Institute of Architects (PAM)

Brazil

1921 - Institute of Architects of Brazil (IAB)

Australia

1930 - The Australian Institute of Architects

Spain

1931 – Superior Council of Colleges of Architects of Spain (CASCAE)

Lebanon

1934 - Order of Architects and Engineers (OEA)

France

1940 – Validated in 1945 – Ile-de-France Association of Architects Currently regulated under 1948 - International Union of Architects and regionally governed under 1977- Ordre Des Architectes

China

1953 – Architectural Society of China

Hong Kong

1956 - The Hong Kong Institute of Architects

Sri Lanka

1957 - Sri Lanka Institute of Architects

Fiji

1957 - Fiji Association of Architects

Nigeria

1960 - '''The Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA)'''

Singapore

1961 - Singapore Institute of Architects

Republic of Korea

1965 - Korea Institute of Registered Architects (KIRA)

Argentina

1969 – reformed in 1988 - Argentina Federation of Organizations of Architects (FADEA)

Bangladesh

1972 - Institute of Architects Bangladesh

Pakistan

1975 - The Institute of Architects, Pakistan (IAP)

Belgium

1977 - Conseil national de l'ordre des architects

Trinidad and Tobago

Established 1988, given legal governance in 1992 - Institute of Architects of Trinidad and Tobago (TTIA)

Luxemburg

1989 - Order of Architects and Engineers (OAI)

=== Czech Republic ===

=== 1992 - Czech Chamber of Architects ===

Russia

1992 - Union of Architects of Russia (UAR)

'''Schools of Architecture'''

For almost the entirety of history architecture has relied on the passing of drawings, sketches and texts without any formal training. Architecture is seen as one of the arts and as such has taken influence from paintings, sculpture, poetry and many other artistic disciplines. In Italy there were certainly architectural workshops in the sixteenth century, although we know very little about them and they were not recognised by academics.

The first school of architecture was established in France when the French state created a new method of reproduction with the formation of a school intended to train architects, the École des Beaux Arts. Through the next century and a half, the field's reproduction system gradually became embedded in national higher education systems and as such, other countries followed suit. The history of the governing body to builders and masons in France, the Royal Building Administration, is of utmost importance as it influenced the organization of the modern architectural office. Its delegation of the tasks of busness administration, drafting, planning, site inspection, and engineering contributed to the way in which architects work today in large offices⁽⁸⁾. It also later went on to set the standard and curriculum that the École des Beaux Arts had to work to.

file:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpgfile:///C:/DOCUME~1/RobP/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.gifThe École des Beaux Arts later acted as a model for America, who saught to create their own identity and style by improving the practice of architecture and through better education. This influence became particularly strong towards the end of the nineteenth century when architects had become independent and were recognised as specialists in their own right, with many wanting to be perceived as not just an independent field but as academics within that field. America recognised that the success of École des Beaux Arts was based on a well organised curriculum, government patronage and a rational design theory. The long established French system was backed by American architects who had also been rallying at this time for their own state licensing laws. After this a number of architectural schools in the USA began to appear and would often seek École des Beaux Arts graduates as lecturers and staff. However not all supported this system with Loius Sulivan, who had studied at the Ecole in 1874, and Frank Lloyd Wright, who turned down Daniel Burnhams offer of four sponsored years in Paris, were the most influential detractors of the school. They called its teachings artificial, superficial, and totally unsuited to American needs⁽⁹⁾.

This is the time when architecture evolved from being a practical taught and refined through generations to an academic discipline, making the architect a professional amongst the likes of Doctors, Physicists, and lawyers. Parts of Europe and later USA followed with this academic method of training however Britain continued with its natural mode of education through is the self-controlling mechanism of apprenticeship. “This was a modification of the medieval apprenticeship system. But where an apprentice exchanged his labour for instruction from a master, an articled pupil paid cash to be taught. Probably something like one-half of all entrants to the occupation were trained through pupillage by 1800, rising very quickly in the opening decades of the nineteenth century to displace other entry points into the occupation, such as through the building trades. Pupillage usually lasted five or six years, and often included attendance at a local arts academy, and perhaps foreign travel” ⁽¹⁰⁾.

Below is a list of details relating to the first major academic institutes for architecture as a profession:

France

Founded in 1671, made independent by Napoléon III 1863 - The École des Beaux Arts

Austria

1772 - Academy fine arts, Vienna - Institute for Art and Architecture.

Germany

1832 - Building Academy (Bauakademie)

USA

1868 - MIT School of Architecture and Planning

UK

1889 - The Architectural Association (AA) offered the first full time course in Architecture, however the first Degree in Architecture was offered by The Cambridge School of Architecture in 1912

According to national records in the Dictionary of National Biography, the entry into the profession of architects in the UK during the eighteenth century onwards shows a very varied pupilage and background with no confirmative way or route to becoming an architect. This is demonstrated in the below tables.

{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Fathers social Status

| colspan="8" style="width:493px;" |
Date of recruitment to the architectural profession

|-
| style="width:123px;height:32px;" |

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
Up to 1789

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1790-1819

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1820-1849

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1850 on

No %

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Upper Class

| style="width:62px;" |
4

| style="width:62px;" |
9

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
6

| style="width:62px;" |
15

| style="width:62px;" |
16

| style="width:62px;" |
7

| style="width:62px;" |
16

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Middle Class

| style="width:62px;" |
10

| style="width:62px;" |
23

| style="width:62px;" |
36

| style="width:62px;" |
40

| style="width:62px;" |
39

| style="width:62px;" |
41

| style="width:62px;" |
23

| style="width:62px;" |
51

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Working Class

| style="width:62px;" |
8

| style="width:62px;" |
18

| style="width:62px;" |
24

| style="width:62px;" |
27

| style="width:62px;" |
8

| style="width:62px;" |
9

| style="width:62px;" |
1

| style="width:62px;" |
2

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
No details

| style="width:62px;" |
22

| style="width:62px;" |
50

| style="width:62px;" |
24

| style="width:62px;" |
27

| style="width:62px;" |
32

| style="width:62px;" |
34

| style="width:62px;" |
14

| style="width:62px;" |
31

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Total

| style="width:62px;" |
44

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
89

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
94

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
45

| style="width:62px;" |
100

|}

{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Form of Training

| colspan="8" style="width:493px;" |
Date of recruitment to the architectural profession

|-
| style="width:123px;height:32px;" |

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
Up to 1789

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1790-1819

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1820-1849

No %

| colspan="2" style="width:123px;height:32px;" |
1850 on

No %

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
a

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
7

| style="width:62px;" |
11

| style="width:62px;" |
12

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
0

| style="width:62px;" |
0

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
b

| style="width:62px;" |
17

| style="width:62px;" |
39

| style="width:62px;" |
56

| style="width:62px;" |
63

| style="width:62px;" |
71

| style="width:62px;" |
76

| style="width:62px;" |
35

| style="width:62px;" |
78

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
c

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
7

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
6

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
5

| style="width:62px;" |
0

| style="width:62px;" |
0

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
d

| style="width:62px;" |
8

| style="width:62px;" |
18

| style="width:62px;" |
14

| style="width:62px;" |
16

| style="width:62px;" |
2

| style="width:62px;" |
2

| style="width:62px;" |
7

| style="width:62px;" |
16

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
No details

| style="width:62px;" |
13

| style="width:62px;" |
30

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
11

| style="width:62px;" |
12

| style="width:62px;" |
3

| style="width:62px;" |
7

|-
| style="width:123px;" |
Total

| style="width:62px;" |
44

| style="width:62px;" |
100

| style="width:62px;" |
89

| style="width:62px;" |
100

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a – apprentice to a builder

b – articled to an architect

c – trained for another occupation

d – Other architectural training, e.g private study, travel abroad etc⁽¹¹⁾

'''Modern conventions'''

In contrast to the diverse and varied entry route to the profession in Britain and much of Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries, the entry route to becoming a practicing architect in modern times has become far more conventional. Most of Europe and the USA all enforce architectural practice through their governing bodies which as well as setting laws and codes of conduct to adhere to whilst in practice, they also very often set the curriculum to be taught in University schools of architecture. The most common route into the architectural profession in Britain today (almost 96%) is through university study which is broken down into: Part 1 – Honours degree in architecture. This is followed by 1 year out in practice under the guidance of an architect post part 1 completion. This year out period should also be monitored and recorded in line with RIBA requirements. Part 2 - Masters or Diploma (depending on individual school) follows on from the year in practice which is again taught in university lasting 2 to 3 years, this is followed by another monitored and recorded year in practice before entry onto part 3 and the RIBA final exam, which once complete the title of architect is granted use.

The roles within a working practice have also become far more defined and restricted and positions in a typical UK based practice would include:

· Architectural Assistants – Training architects before part 3 completion, these are often broken down into Part 1 assistants and Part 2 assistants.

· Architectural technicians/technologists – Often taken up by assistants who do not return to academic training post either part 1 or part 2 completion however continue to work within the industry. Or often seen as its own specialist discipline within the practice relating to construction and technical issue, architectural technologist can study this subject as a separate degree and become members of CIAT (Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists and Technicians.

· A newly qualified Part 3 architect – often working under the guidance of a project architect.

· Project architect – Given most of the responsibilities involved with running a job with occasional guidance prom a director

· Associate Directors – often viewed as a junior director who has responsibility of overseeing several project architects

· Directors & Senior Directors – Oversee associate directors and are often not particularly involved in any single project. Most common for time to be spent with new clients or overseeing the management of the practice

· Principle – Head of that particular office

· Partner – Shareholder in the practice, often in smaller companies the directors or principle make up the Partners

'''References'''

1. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.15)

2. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.180)

3. Barrington Kaye, 1960 (p.32)

4. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.97)

5. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.125)

6. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.132)

7. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.129)

8. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.161)

9. Spiro Kostof, 1977 (p.216)

10. Dr Garry Stevens, 2001, Key Centre for Architectural sociology

11. Barrington Kaye, 1960 (p.48)

'''Bibliography'''

John Shute, The First and Chief Groundes of Architecture, (1563)

· E.Harris (1990)

· Lewis & Darley (1986)

· Shute (1563)

· Summerson (ed.) (1993)

· Jane Turner (1996)

·

Dr Garry Stevens, 2001, Key Centre for Architectural sociology

http://www.archsoc.com/kcas/Historyed.html#Z4

Andrew Saint, The Image of the Architect, Yale University Press; First Edition edition, 1983

Harry Francis Mallgrave, Architectural theory Vol II Anthology from 1871-2005, Blackwell publishing, 2008

Kenneth Frampton and Yukio Futagawa. [http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/glk?http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0064300862/artificeinc Modern Architecture 1851-1945], New York, N.Y publishings, 1983

Moffett, Marian / Fazio, Micheal / Wodehouse, Lawrence, 2003, A Worlds History of Architecture, Lawrence King Publishing, 2003

Sir John Summerson , The Classical Language of Architecture (originally published 1963), Thames & Hudson; Revised edition edition (23 Jun 1980)

Henry Wotton – The Elements of Architecture (1624) – online :http://www.archive.org/stream/elementsarchite00wottgoog#page/n20/mode/2up

Spiro Kostof, The Architect – Chapters in the History of the Profession, University of California Press, 1977, rereleased in 2000

= Barrington Kaye, The Development of the Architectural Proffession in Britain, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1960 =

= Web references =

[http://www.aia.org/ www.aia.org]

[http://www.arkitektforeningen.dk/aa/uk/AA http://www.arkitektforeningen.dk/aa/uk/AA]

[http://www.ace-cae.org/ http://www.ace-cae.org]

[http://www.aij.or.jp/aijhome.htm www.aij.or.jp/aijhome.htm]

[http://www.asbea.org.br/ http://www.asbea.org.br/]

[http://www.asa.or.th/ http://www.asa.or.th]

[http://www.meszorg.hu/ http://www.meszorg.hu/]

[http://www.architectes-fr.com/CIAF/ http://www.architectes-fr.com/CIAF/]

[http://www.architectes.org/ http://www.architectes.org]

[http://www.ordredesarchitectes.be/ http://www.ordredesarchitectes.be/]

[http://www.fadea.org/ www.fadea.org]

[http://www.kia.or.kr/ http://www.kia.or.kr/]

[http://www.iia-india.org/ http://www.iia-india.org]

[http://www.iap.com.pk/ http://www.iap.com.pk]

[http://www.iranarcs.com/ http://www.iranarcs.com/]

[http://www.jia.or.jp/ http://www.jia.or.jp/]

[http://www.nav.be/ http://www.nav.be/]

[http://www.nzia.co.nz/default.aspx?c=246&t=Home http://www.nzia.co.nz/default.aspx?c=246&t=Home]

[http://www.raic.org/ www.raic.org/]

[http://www.raia.com.au/ www.raia.com.au]

[http://www.riai.ie/ http://www.riai.ie/]

[http://www.riba.org/go/RIBA/Home.html http://www.riba.org/go/RIBA/Home.html]

[http://www.bna.nl/home/Welkom_bij_de.BNA?VarHtmlPage=home/dhtmlHomeFrameset.htm http://www.bna.nl/home/Welkom_bij_de.BNA?VarHtmlPage=home/dhtmlHomeFrameset.htm]

[http://www.cka.cc/ http://www.cka.cc/]

[http://www.saia.org.za/ http://www.saia.org.za/]

[http://www.uar.ru/ http://www.uar.ru/]

[http://www.sarp.org.pl/ http://www.sarp.org.pl/]

[http://www.uap-online.org/ http://www.uap-online.org]

[http://www.akbild.ac.at/portal_en/academyen/about-us/history http://www.akbild.ac.at/portal_en/academyen/about-us/history]

[[Category:Student_architect_essay_competition]]