Designing Buildings - User contributions [en]

User:Gregor Harvie

2025-04-16T08:43:29Z

Gregor Harvie:

Dr Gregor Harvie is an artist and co-founder of Designing Buildings Wiki. He originally trained as an architect, has a PhD in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and has published research papers on fabric structures, environmental design and CFD. He has worked for multi-disciplinary practices PSA, Atkins and WYG.

Gregor was the technical trouble-shooter for the design and construction of the Millennium Dome, where he met project director David Trench, co-founder and chairman of Designing Buildings.

He has a post graduate diploma in fine art and works professionally as an artist.

User:Gregor Harvie

2023-12-04T11:10:09Z

Gregor Harvie:

Dr Gregor Harvie is an architect and artist and co-founder of Designing Buildings Wiki. He has a PhD in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and has published research papers on fabric structures, environmental design and CFD. He has worked for multi-disciplinary practices PSA, Atkins and WYG.

Gregor was the technical trouble-shooter for the design and construction of the Millennium Dome, where he met project director David Trench, co-founder and chairman of Designing Buildings Wiki.

He has a post graduate diploma in fine art and has had three solo exhibitions of his paintings in London.

User:Gregor Harvie

2023-12-04T11:09:19Z

Gregor Harvie:

{|
|width="100%"|
== Contents ==

* [[#Dr_Gregor_Harvie_is_an_architect_and_project_management_consultant_and_co-founder_of_Designing_Buildings_Wiki._He_has_a_PhD_in_Computational_Fluid_Dynamics_.28CFD.29_and_has_published_research_papers_on_fabric_structures.2C_environmental_design_and_CFD._He_has_worked_for_multi-disciplinary_practices_PSA.2C_Atkins_and_WYG.|1 Dr Gregor Harvie is an architect and project management consultant and co-founder of Designing Buildings Wiki. He has a PhD in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and has published research papers on fabric structures, environmental design and CFD. He has worked for multi-disciplinary practices PSA, Atkins and WYG.]]
* [[#Gregor_was_the_technical_trouble-shooter_for_the_design_and_construction_of_the_Millennium_Dome.2C_where_he_met_project_director_David_Trench.2C_co-founder_and_chairman_of_Designing_Buildings_Wiki.|2 Gregor was the technical trouble-shooter for the design and construction of the Millennium Dome, where he met project director David Trench, co-founder and chairman of Designing Buildings Wiki.]]
* [[#He_has_a_post_graduate_diploma_in_fine_art_and_has_had_three_solo_exhibitions_of_his_paintings_in_London.|3 He has a post graduate diploma in fine art and has had three solo exhibitions of his paintings in London.]]
* [[#contents|4 contents]]
|}

= Dr Gregor Harvie is an architect and project management consultant and co-founder of Designing Buildings Wiki. He has a PhD in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and has published research papers on fabric structures, environmental design and CFD. He has worked for multi-disciplinary practices PSA, Atkins and WYG. =

= Gregor was the technical trouble-shooter for the design and construction of the Millennium Dome, where he met project director David Trench, co-founder and chairman of Designing Buildings Wiki. =

= He has a post graduate diploma in fine art and has had three solo exhibitions of his paintings in London. =

= contents =

User:Gregor Harvie

2023-12-04T11:08:45Z

Gregor Harvie:

= Dr Gregor Harvie is an architect and project management consultant and co-founder of Designing Buildings Wiki. He has a PhD in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and has published research papers on fabric structures, environmental design and CFD. He has worked for multi-disciplinary practices PSA, Atkins and WYG. =

= Gregor was the technical trouble-shooter for the design and construction of the Millennium Dome, where he met project director David Trench, co-founder and chairman of Designing Buildings Wiki. =

= He has a post graduate diploma in fine art and has had three solo exhibitions of his paintings in London. =

= contents =

User:Gregor Harvie

2023-12-04T11:08:14Z

Gregor Harvie:

Shrines of British and Irish saints in Germany

2021-10-03T06:34:14Z

Gregor Harvie: Created page with "Shrines of British and Irish saints in Germany Churches and monasteries in Germany constitute a shared heritage of British and Irish missionaries who converted the forefathers o..."

Shrines of British and Irish saints in Germany

Churches and monasteries in Germany constitute a shared heritage of British and Irish missionaries who converted the forefathers of the Germans to Christianity.

The renowned scholar of the medieval period Norman F Cantor called him ‘one of the truly outstanding creators of the first Europe’[1], Roman Catholics revere him as the ‘Apostle of the Germans’, and in 1980 Pope John Paul II and an estimated crowd of 100,000 paid their respects in front of his shrine. But most people in the UK may not know of St Boniface, let alone of his fellow missionaries from Northumbria and Wessex who sacrificed their lives to spread the Gospel among the peoples beyond the Rhine and Danube.

As the Hiberno-Scottish and Anglo-Saxon missions on the continent during the 7th and 8th centuries have been subject to almost nationwide memory loss, only a minority of people in Britain will be aware that it was British and Irish missionaries who converted the forefathers of the Germans to Christianity. Today, in a secularised society, such an achievement may be regarded as largely irrelevant, but in the context of cultural export and integration their contribution remains immeasurable. It was these courageous and selfless but ultimately immensely influential individuals from places such as Ripon and Exeter who triggered the century-long process of turning pagan Germania into Christian Deutschland.

The first missionaries to set sail for the continent were itinerant monks from Ireland. Throughout the 7th century they remained active in what had been the Celtic fringe of the Roman Empire north of the Alps. Avoiding the ancient Christian communities along the Rhine and concentrating instead on the Black Forest, Lake Constance, and the Salzach, Danube, and Main regions, they preached, founded monasteries and promoted cultivation on all levels. The second wave in the 8th century saw missionaries from religious centres in the newly Christianised Anglo-Saxon kingdoms travelling to their distant pagan relatives on the continent (Saxons, Frisians, Thuringians and Hessians). They were instrumental not only in converting the population but in the establishment of the church as an organisation within the Frankish Empire.

During the 11th century a third wave of Gaelic monks founded monasteries in Franconia and Bavaria in an already Christianised society. Like their forebears, these Irish migrants became known under the joint Latin name used for the Gaelic-speaking Irish and Scots, ‘Scot(t)i’, which led to the term ‘Schottenklöster’ (Scots monasteries) for their monastic foundations in Germany. Together these three groups of canonised preachers and founders from England and Ireland left behind a rich tapestry of churches, monasteries and even cathedrals across southern, western and central Germany. The church buildings successively erected on the sites of their martyrdom or their area of activity have served as shrines for their relics and as centres of their commemoration ever since.

Little is known about the architecture of the first shrines from the Merovingian period (until 751), although the archaeological scarcity is being outweighed by ample testimony about the saints and their lives in the form of biographies, authored from within their monastic foundations. Tombs and crypts, decorated caskets and illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest surviving tangible evidence of tradition, as are the relics themselves. The skull of the Irish St Kilian (c689), who is revered as apostle of the German region of Franconia and patron saint of the city of Würzburg, is kept in the cathedral church of St Kilian in its centre, while his statue adorns the bridge across the Main River.

His Irish countrymen have left a beautiful mark on the earliest Bavarian capital Regensburg (also known in English under its ancient Roman name of Ratisbon), whose entire historic city centre gained world heritage status in 2006. They built the still standing Romanesque church of the Scots Monastery of St James (Schottenkloster St Jakob), which serves as a shrine to Marianus Scottus/Muiredach mac Robartaig (c1081). The richly decorated portal, occupying a third of the wall of its northern aisle, is completely preserved in situ under a protective yet controversial canopy. The portal features sculptures of saints and beasts, and is regarded as the most complex and figurative Romanesque portal in Germany. The symbolism behind its sculptural programme undoubtedly refers to the Last Judgement. It has inspired speculation and scholarly interpretations for over 200 years, never being fully explained.

The Devon-born St Walpurga and her brothers St Willibald and St Winibald have left their mark on Bavaria as well as Franconia. Until her death in around 779, Walpurga led the Benedictine abbey of Heidenheim in Franconia, which had been founded by her brothers in 742. Under her governance Heidenheim was run as a double monastery, with male and female monks living on the same site. In the 870s her remains were ceremoniously transferred to Eichstätt, where the Benedictine monastery St Walpurga operated until the secularisation in 1806. It remains a popular place of pilgrimage to this day. Her elder brother Willibald, the first Englishman known to have reached the Holy Land, became the first bishop of Eichstätt in Bavaria. Parts of the 8th century church survive in the choir of his shrine, Eichstätt Cathedral, which has also retained substantial Romanesque, gothic, renaissance and baroque fabric. Walpurga’s younger brother Winibald became the first abbot of the monastery in Heidenheim in 752, remaining there until his death in 761, when she succeeded him. In 777 Winibald’s remains were translated into the newly built crypt at Heidenheim. The nave and transept of the 1188 rededicated new church building are still in use.

The presence of medieval churches dedicated to local saints of British and Irish origin supports the written evidence of their regional missionary activity in Germany, but none of the missionaries has achieved national or even international significance like St Boniface. According to tradition he was an uncle of St Walpurga and her brothers, born in the Devon town of Crediton, and given the name Winfred. After monastic training in Exeter and Nursling in Hampshire, and a first failed mission to the Frisians, he was made missionary bishop by Pope Gregory II, re-named ‘Bonifatius’, and charged with the conversion of the pagan tribes in Germany. With the crucial backing of both Rome and Frankish kings, his mission turned into a success of European proportions.

He not only fulfilled his task, but in the process established what would eventually become the fragile but lasting relationship between popes and emperors until 1806. The position St Boniface gained as bishop of Mainz (former capital of the Roman province Germania I) would be the German equivalent of the see of Canterbury. He reorganised dioceses and commissioned the foundation of monasteries, most notably around 723 in Fritzlar (preceding Fritzlar Cathedral) and 744 in Fulda. When he died a martyr in Friesland in 754, Fulda and Mainz fought over his remains, which ultimately were interred in Fulda Abbey. The abbey church built by Ratgar between 791 and 819 was then the largest basilica north of the Alps, admired for its size by Abraham ben Jacob in his travel report to the caliph of Cordoba, Al-Hakam II (961–976).

Johann Dientzenhofer’s baroque rebuilding of the abbey church was consecrated in 1712. Due to its unusual orientation towards the west, inspired by a study trip to St Peter in Rome, both the altar and the crypt of St Boniface coincidentally point towards his native Devon. In 1752, when the abbey was raised to the status of prince-bishopric, the shrine of St Boniface became Fulda Cathedral. Situated beside the ancient church of St Michael (patron saint of the Germans), the shrine of St Boniface (apostle of the Germans) enjoys an outstanding position in the consciousness of the nation’s church. Throughout German history no other Englishman has ever achieved recognition of such magnitude.

St Boniface was succeeded by his disciple Lull(us), who had been a monk in the Benedictine abbey at Malmesbury in Wiltshire before becoming a missionary in Germany in 738. St Lullus reached the pinnacle of his career as archbishop of Mainz. In 769 he founded the Benedictine abbey at Hersfeld, which was raised to the autonomous status of imperial abbey by Charlemagne and exempted from episcopal jurisdiction by Pope Stephen III. The church was extended between 831 and 850 and rebuilt from 1038 after a fire, the choir consecrated in 1040, and the new nave consecrated in 1144, but then destroyed in 1761. It survives as the largest Romanesque church ruin in Europe.

Lull’s remains were buried in the first abbey church in 786 and ceremoniously reburied in the east choir of the church extension in 852. The annual Feast of St Lullus, celebrated on this occasion for the first time, is the oldest local festival in the German-speaking world. The epitaph that purportedly stood at his now lost grave bore an inscription beginning with the following distich: ‘Lull michi nomen erat, famosa Britannia mater’ (My name was Lull [and] famous Britain [was] my mother[land])[2].

References:

* [1] Cantor, Norman F, (1993) The Civilization of the Middle Ages: a completely revised and expanded edition of ‘Medieval History, the life and death of a civilization’, Harper Collins, New York.
* [2] ‘Epitaphium Lulli’, in Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini recensuit Ernestus Duemmler, tom.II (Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Poetarum Latinorum Medii Aevi, tom.II), Berlin 1884.

-----
This article originally appeared in [https://ihbconline.co.uk/cont_arch/?p=1196 Context 168], published by the Institute of Historic Building Conservation (IHBC) in June 2021. It was written by Michael Asselmeyer, an architect and historian, who has been a lecturer in architecture at the University of Dundee and a senior lecturer in architecture at the University of Central Lancashire.

--[[User:Institute_of_Historic_Building_Conservation|Institute of Historic Building Conservation]]

= Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki =

* Britain's Lost Churches.
* Building a Crossing Tower: a design for Rouen Cathedral of 1516.
* Conservation.
* Durham Cathedral's Open Treasure project.
* Floors of the great medieval churches.
* Heritage asset.
* Historic building.
* IHBC articles.
* Memorials and public parks.
* Saint Michael's Kirkyard, Dumfries: a Presbyterian Valhalla.
* Sourcing stone to repair Exeter Cathedral.
* The Institute of Historic Building Conservation.

[[Category:History]] [[Category:International]] [[Category:Conservation]]

File:Gregor harvie profile 2021.png

2021-09-14T08:39:55Z

Gregor Harvie:

Article 10000

2020-07-02T13:24:44Z

Gregor Harvie: Redirected page to Article 10,000

#redirect:[[Article_10,000|Article 10,000]]

User:Gregor Harvie

2020-07-02T13:23:40Z

Gregor Harvie:

Dr Gregor Harvie is an architect and project management consultant and co-founder of Designing Buildings Wiki. He has a PhD in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and has published research papers on fabric structures, environmental design and CFD. He has worked for multi-disciplinary practices PSA, Atkins and WYG.

Gregor was the technical trouble-shooter for the design and construction of the Millennium Dome, where he met project director David Trench, co-founder and chairman of Designing Buildings Wiki.

He has a post graduate diploma in fine art and has had three solo exhibitions of his paintings in London.

Green Sky Thinking

2018-05-17T15:57:11Z

Gregor Harvie:

Between May 14th and 18th 2018, Open City held five events a day for [https://open-city.org.uk/professional/green-sky-thinking/ Green Sky Thinking Week] at venues across London, exploring ‘honest lessons learned’ from the capital’s best sustainable city-making projects. Addressing a ‘people first’ theme, they were led by London’s built environment specialists with a passion and expertise in sustainable design.

Prompted by the omission of the density matrix from the New London Plan, [[User:Mae|Mæ]] organised a panel to discuss place-making, considering the drivers that will direct appropriate density in future housing development within London.

Organised by Mæ in partnership with [[User:Vastint_UK|Vastint UK]] at [[Sugar_House_Island|Sugar House Island]], the event was entitled: Designing for people or designing for density - can we continue to create urban liveability at ever increasing densities?

A panel of architects and developers explored this issue in the context of London, as well as further afield, offering diverse perspectives on this challenging subject.

Chaired by Alex Ely, Principal at Mæ, the panel included:

* Michiel van Soest - Development Manager – Vastint UK
* Jennifer Currier - Head of Design - Red Door Ventures
* Peter Maxwell - Director of Design - LLDC
* Oliver Bulleid - Associate Director – Mæ

[[File:Green-Sky-Thinking-Event-Mae-Vastint-1.JPG|link=File:Green-Sky-Thinking-Event-Mae-Vastint-1.JPG]]Michiel van Soest, Development Manager at Vastint UK began by asserting that density needs to be considered holistically rather than simply as a product and output of residential design. He outlined how Vastint’s mixed-use schemes in London, Leeds and Cardiff are led by design of the public realm and the provision of outdoor spaces for the different communities to enjoy and own.

[[File:Tetley_Brewery_site_Leeds_aerial.jpg|link=File:Tetley_Brewery_site_Leeds_aerial.jpg]]

Michiel’s examples included the team’s decision to remove a proposed building from the southern part of Sugar House Island in order to reduce density and give space back to allow future communities to shape it for their own use, whether it be events or markets or something not yet considered. Michiel said he felt it important not to ‘over design’ but to leave opportunities for communities to solve problems as a positive action themselves and take ownership of the buildings and spaces they occupy. This philosophy extends to the shared streets which prioritise pedestrians and cyclists in the scheme.

Jennifer Currier, Head of Design at [https://www.reddoorventures.co.uk/about-us/ Red Door Ventures] said she did not see density as necessarily in opposition with designing for people. In Metro ranking of boroughs, Islington is both the densest borough and the most desirable. Many dense boroughs are perceived as great places to live.

[[File:Green-Sky-Thinking-Red-Door-Ventures.JPG|link=File:Green-Sky-Thinking-Red-Door-Ventures.JPG]]

Jennifer asserted that many factors which make a place desirable (such as amenity, transport etc) require footfall to support the placemaking. Jennifer then outlined Red Door’s 60-year business plan and the aim to be recognised as a build to rent market leader by creating exceptional living experiences. She presented the case study of a 182 PRS scheme in Plaistow which is using increased density to catalyse improvements to the area.

Peter Maxwell, Director of Design at [http://www.queenelizabetholympicpark.co.uk/our-story/the-legacy-corporation LLDC] asserted that it was important to consider density in the context of liveability – how places work and operate. Peter listed the ‘Thriving places index’ as an important measuring tool in considering the built environment.

[[File:Green-Sky-Thinking-LLDC.JPG|link=File:Green-Sky-Thinking-LLDC.JPG]]

The LLDC has a long-term plan to try and improve the attainment and life chances of its inhabitants and his focus is on five new neighbourhoods in the Olympic Park delivering 7,000 homes and 10,000 new jobs, as well as a new cultural and education district.

Oliver Bulleid, Associate Director at Mæ, stated that although many developers argued they could go beyond the density levels in latest draft of the London Plan, the question remained as to whether they would be successful. He acknowledged that the increasing global population and shift to urban living required density in design. Oliver gave practice case studies with their density levels.

[[File:Green-Sky-Thinking-MAE.JPG|link=File:Green-Sky-Thinking-MAE.JPG]]

He then proposed a new Green Sky-city living campus of linked settlements as a way of solving some of the spatial pressures on London.

Alex Ely, too, questions and comments from the audience on space standards, sustainability and its real meaning in the Green Sky Thinking movement and whether design can fulfil density while still creating spaces people want to occupy. A discussion took place on post-occupation evaluations and how longer term developments enabled designers to deliver improved customer satisfaction in later phases.

Alex summed up proceedings as a dense/intense opposition, and commented on the significance of public spaces and street level interventions as part of the density mix, as well as London’s increasing love of tall buildings.

[[Category:Education]] [[Category:Organisations]] [[Category:Projects_and_case_studies]] [[Category:Research_/_Innovation]] [[Category:Theory]] [[Category:Policy]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Design]]

Hackitt review of the building regulations and fire safety, final report

2018-05-17T12:06:41Z

Gregor Harvie:

On 28 July 2017, following the Grenfell Tower fire, Communities Secretary Sajid Javid announced an independent review of the building regulations and fire safety. The review was led by Dame Judith Hackitt, and focussed specifically on issues related to high-rise residential buildings, including:

* The regulatory system around design, construction and on-going management.
* Compliance and enforcement issues.
* International regulation and experience in this area.

On 18 December 2017, an Interim Report, was published, which called for a 'universal shift in culture'.

On 16 May 2018, [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/independent-review-of-building-regulations-and-fire-safety-final-report Building a Safer Future, Independent Review of Building Regulations and Fire Safety: Final Report], was published, setting out more than 50 recommendations for government as to how to deliver a more robust regulatory system.

[[File:Hackitt_final_report.jpg|link=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/independent-review-of-building-regulations-and-fire-safety-final-report]]

In the report Dame Hackitt suggests that; “…there is a need for a radical rethink of the whole system and how it works. This is most definitely not just a question of the specification of cladding systems, but of an industry that has not reflected and learned for itself, nor looked to other sectors.”

The recommendations are intended to apply to new and existing high-rise residential properties which are 10 storeys high or more. In some cases however, the review suggests applying specific recommendations to a wider set of buildings, and it is proposed that the scope could be extended in light of either critical information emerging or experience of operating the new regime.

The report suggests that:

* The roles and responsibilities of those procuring, designing, constructing and maintaining buildings are unclear.
* The package of regulations and guidance can be ambiguous and inconsistent.
* The processes that drive compliance with building safety requirements are weak and complex with poor record keeping and change control.
* Competence across the system is patchy.
* Product testing, labelling and marketing is opaque and insufficient.
* The voices of residents often go unheard.

It calls for a new framework designed to:

* Create a more simple and effective mechanism for driving building safety.
* Provide stronger oversight of dutyholders.
* Reassert the role of residents.

The recommendations of the report include:

* A new regulatory framework for multi-occupancy higher-risk residential buildings (HRRBs) that are 10 storeys or more in height.
* A new Joint Competent Authority (JCA) comprising Local Authority Building Standards, fire and rescue authorities and the Health and Safety Executive to oversee better management of safety risks in these buildings (through safety cases) across their entire life cycle.
* A mandatory incident reporting mechanism.
* New dutyholder roles and responsibilities aligned with the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015.
* A series of robust gateway points to strengthen regulatory oversight.
* Stronger change control processes.
* A single, more streamlined, regulatory route to oversee building standards. Oversight of HRRBs will only be provided through Local Authority Building Standards as part of the JCA, with Approved Inspectors available to expand local authority capacity/expertise or to provide accredited verification and consultancy services to dutyholders.
* More rigorous enforcement powers.
* A clear and identifiable dutyholder with responsibility for building safety.
* Delivering building safety as a system rather than by considering a series of competing or isolated objectives.
* A more effective testing regime with clearer labelling and product traceability.
* Obligating the creation of a digital record for new HRRBs from initial design intent through to construction and including any changes that occur throughout occupation.

In relation to the regulations themselves, Dame Hackitt suggests that; “…some of those who construct buildings treat the minimum standards in the Approved Documents as a high bar to be negotiated down, rather than genuinely owning the principles of a safe building and meeting the outcomes set out in the regulations “

The report proposes that the future structure of guidance should support an outcomes-based approach and that the responsibility for developing guidance should be moved to the industry. It also highlights the complexity of supporting guidance beneath the Approved Documents, which reference a wide range of other documents and standards, increasing confusion and making it difficult to determine how to meet requirements. Instead, it suggests that there should be a single, coherent suite of guidance documents with multiple points of entry for different users, and the ability to read across functional requirements.

The report recommends significantly reducing the use of desktop studies rather than physical testing of materials or systems, but stops short of banning them, stating; 'The proposed change does not ban assessments in lieu of tests, as there are some products and systems for which a full-scale physical test is not possible, but it will significantly reduce their use and ensure that those which are carried out are conducted rigorously and properly recorded for further scrutiny.'

In response to the report, Secretary of State for Housing James Brokenshire MP said; "Dame Judith is clear that the current system - developed over many years and successive governments – is not fit for purpose. She is calling for major reform and a change of culture, with the onus more clearly on everyone involved to manage the risks they create at every stage and government doing more to set and enforce high standards. This government agrees with that assessment and supports the principles behind the report’s recommendations for a new system."

He went on to confirm that the government:

* Is consulting on significantly restricting or banning the use of desktop studies to assess cladding systems.
* Is working with industry to clarify Building Regulations fire safety guidance, and will publish this for consultation in July.
* Will consult on banning the use of combustible materials in cladding systems on high-rise residential buildings.
* Will work with the industry to make the wider suite of building regulations guidance more user-friendly.

Ref [https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/statement-on-the-hackitt-review https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/statement-on-the-hackitt-review]

However, there was some criticism that the review itself did not call for a ban on flammable cladding, as recommended by the RIBA and others. Labour MP David Lammy said; "It is unthinkable and unacceptable that so many people can die in a disaster like Grenfell and one year on flammable cladding has not been banned."

In response, Dame Judith said; "The guidance already says that you can only use materials of limited combustibility or materials that have been fully tested... It is clear from Grenfell and from the other tests that have been done that despite the guidance currently saying that, people were putting other materials up, so I don't think a ban will work."

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===

* ACM cladding testing by BRE.
* ACM cladding.
* Approved documents.
* BS 8414 Fire performance of external cladding systems.
* BS 9991:2015 Fire safety in the design, management and use of residential buildings. Code of practice.
* BS 9999: Code of practice for fire safety in the design, management and use of buildings.
* Building regulations.
* Celotex insulation.
* Fire performance of external thermal insulation for walls of multistorey buildings, third edition (BR 135).
* Grenfell Tower articles.
* Grenfell Tower Fire.
* Grenfell Tower independent expert advisory panel
* Grenfell Tower industry response group.
* Grenfell Tower Inquiry.
* Grenfell Tower working group.
* ICE Grenfell Tower review.
* Independent review of the building regulations and fire safety.
* Lakanal House fire.
* Rainscreen cladding.
* Ronan Point.
* The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005.
* Torre Windsor office building fire.

[[Category:Health_and_safety_/_CDM]] [[Category:Policy]] [[Category:Regulations]] [[Category:News]]

User:Gregor Harvie

2018-05-17T11:55:36Z

Gregor Harvie:

Dr Gregor Harvie RIBA is an architect and project management consultant. He has a PhD in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and has published research papers on fabric structures, environmental design and CFD. As well as an impressive academic record, Gregor has had the practical experience of working for multi-disciplinary practices: the PSA, WS Atkins and WYG.

Gregor was the technical trouble-shooter for the government agency which managed the design and construction of the Millennium Dome. More recently, Gregor acted as client representative for a major masterplanning exercise to rationalise building facilities on 200 acres of estate for the University of Southampton.

He is co-founder of [[User:Designing_Buildings|Designing Buildings Wiki]] and director of creative consultancy [[User:Ganda|Ganda Harvie]]. He has a post graduate diploma in fine art and has had three solo exhibitions in London.

File:Author profiles.jpg

2015-09-29T10:55:17Z

Gregor Harvie: uploaded a new version of "File:Author profiles.jpg"

File:Category tree.jpg

2015-09-29T10:52:42Z

Gregor Harvie: uploaded a new version of "File:Category tree.jpg"

Talk:Test article

2015-06-15T14:16:33Z

Gregor Harvie: Created page with " test"

test

The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes

2015-06-15T13:53:59Z

Gregor Harvie: Removed protection from "The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes"

A thesis submitted to the University of Wales for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor by GREGOR HARVIE. Welsh School of Architecture, University of Wales College of Cardiff, March 1996.

The findings in brief:
*Boundary models and CFD models need to be dynamically linked to properly represent the impact of thin boundaries whose temperatures can change very rapidly and very significantly (up to 15°c in a minute simply as a result of the sun coming out).
*Analysis of comfort must include radiant temperatures as well as air temperatures, particularly in spaces where there is a significant difference in temperature between the air in the space and the surfaces enclosing it, or where solar radiation penetrates the space.
*The difference in temperature between thin boundaries and the air they enclose, combined with smooth surface geometry results in a higher surface air velocity than is found in conventional spaces. This is similar to the downdraft generated by a cold window.
*Where there is likely to be a significant difference in temperature between a boundary and the air adjacent to it, a very small cell size (40mm or less) is required to properly simulate the increased surface air velocity at that surface and so the increased surface heat transfer. Failure to properly simulate this will result in an underestimation of the contribution the boundary makes to internal conditions.
*In non-cartesian spaces (ie where surfaces are not all vertical or horizontal, but may be inclined or curved) it is necessary to use a body-fitted cell grid (i.e. one in which the grid is distorted to follow the contours of the surface) to allow a small enough cell size adjacent to boundaries to properly simulate the flow of air across those boundaries. If a cartesian grid is used, a refined grid is required throughout the space just to simulate the flow of air across the non-cartesian boundaries and this is computationally impractical.

----

[[File:CFD.jpg|RTENOTITLE]]This thesis describes a programme of research the aim of which was to investigate the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membrane envelopes.

Initial analysis suggested that a fabric membrane can affect conditions within a space enclosed by it as a result of its internal surface temperature and the amount of radiation it directs into that space. In order to investigate these parameters, a test cell was constructed which allowed the thermal behaviour of a range of fabric membranes to be monitored.

The monitored data revealed that the thermal behaviour of fabric membranes is entirely dictated by their angular thermal optical properties. These properties were measured and a dynamic spread sheet model was developed which was able to simulate the monitored behaviour fairly accurately.

In order to investigate the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by such membranes, conditions within four existing fabric roofed buildings were monitored. The monitored data revealed that comfort temperatures could vary significantly from place to place within such spaces. These variations were produced by both the stratification of internal air temperatures and differences in internal radiant temperatures.

An attempt was made to simulate the behaviour of the buildings monitored, using a general applications CFD code in conjunction with information generated by the spread sheet model. Whilst some behaviour patterns could be simulated accurately using this approach, it was apparent that the simplification of boundary conditions in the CFD code meant it was unable to accurately predict strong internal stratification.

It was proposed that improving the reliability of this process would require the development of a specialist CFD model able to dynamically simulate both the behaviour of the fabric enclosure and the internal space.

----
*[[File:Contents.pdf|File:Contents.pdf|alt=File:Contents.pdf]]. Contents.
*[[File:Chapter 1.pdf|File:Chapter_1.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_1.pdf]]. Introduction.
*[[File:Chapter 2.pdf|File:Chapter_2.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_2.pdf]]. Subject Background.
*[[File:Chapter 3.pdf|File:Chapter_3.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_3.pdf]]. The Existing Body of Knowledge.
*[[File:Chapter 4.pdf|File:Chapter_4.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_4.pdf]]. Methodology.
*[[File:Chapter 5.pdf|File:Chapter_5.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_5.pdf]]. Monitoring the Thermal Behaviour of Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 6.pdf|File:Chapter_6.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_6.pdf]]. Measuring the Thermal Properties of Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 7.pdf|File:Chapter_7.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_7.pdf]]. Modelling the Thermal Behaviour of Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 8.pdf|File:Chapter_8.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_8.pdf]]. Monitoring the Thermal Behaviour of Spaces Enclosed by Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 9.pdf|File:Chapter_9.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_9.pdf]]. Modelling the Thermal Behaviour of Spaces Enclosed by Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 10.pdf|File:Chapter_10.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_10.pdf]]. Discussion.
*[[File:Chapter 11.pdf|File:Chapter_11.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_11.pdf]]. Conclusions.
*[[File:Appendices.pdf|File:Appendices.pdf|alt=File:Appendices.pdf]]. Appendices.

----

[[File:Thermal comfort in a fabric structure.jpg|710x425px|alt=Thermal comfort in a fabric structure.jpg]]

--[[User%3AGregor%20Harvie|Gregor Harvie]] 05:36, 22 May 2014 (BST)

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Computational Fluid Dynamics.
*ETFE.
*Frei Otto.
*Khan Shatyr Entertainment Centre.
*London 2012 Olympic Stadium.
*Millennium Dome.
*Sustainability.
*The history of fabric structures. 
*Thermal behaviour of architectural fabric structures (updated version of this research).
*Thermal comfort.
*Transparent insulation materials.
*U values.

[[Category:Products_/_components]]

The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes

2015-06-15T13:53:47Z

Gregor Harvie: Protected "The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes" ([move=author] (indefinite))

Change order for construction contracts

2015-06-02T10:50:04Z

Gregor Harvie:

In project management, a change order is a component of the change management process in which changes in the scope of work agreed to by the client, contractor and architect are implemented.

A change order is work that is added to or deleted from the original scope of work of a contract, which alters the original contract amount and/or completion date. A change order may fork a new project to handle significant changes to the current project.

Change orders are common to most projects, and very common on large projects. After the original scope (or contract) is formed, complete with the total price to be paid and the specific work to be completed, a client may decide that the original plans do not best represent their definition for the finished project. Accordingly, the client will suggest an alternate approach.

Common causes for change orders to be created are:
*The project's work was incorrectly estimated.
*The client or project team discover obstacles or possible efficiencies that require them to deviate from the original plan.
*The client or project team are inefficient or incapable of completing their required deliverables within budget, and additional money, time, or resources must be added to the project
*During the course of the project, additional features or options are perceived and requested.
*The contractor looks for work items to add to the original scope of work at a later time in order to achieve the lowest possible base bid price, but then add work items and fee back on once they have been appointed. This is an exploitative practice.

 A project manager then typically generates a change order that describes the new work to be done (or not done in some cases), and the price to be paid for this new work. Once this change order is submitted and approved it generally serves to alter the original contract such that the change order now becomes part of the contract.

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Architect's instruction.
*Budget.
*Completion date.
*Construction contract.
*Project manager.
*Project team.
*Variations.

[[Category:Construction_management]]

Test article

2015-06-02T10:48:22Z

Gregor Harvie:

{| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="0" align="left"
|+ caption
|-
| [[File:Black tent.jpg|133x60px|alt=Black tent.jpg]] 
|
text goes here rn fgn kfdg ;ldnkf g;lndf g;lnsd f;glnsd; flkgn ;sldfng lsdfkng;lsdfnkg;lsdfnk g;lsdnf g

|-
| 
| 
|-
| 
| 
|}

Compensation event

2015-06-02T10:47:54Z

Gregor Harvie:

The NEC Engineering and Construction Contract 3rd Edition (NEC3) was published in June 2005. It has been adopted as the contract of choice by the government who no longer update the GC Works contracts, and has been endorsed by the ICE whose own suite of contracts will no longer be updated.

Compensation events are referred to in NEC3, and are similar to relevant events and relevant matters referred to in other forms of contract such as JCT contracts.

If events occur during the course of the works that cause the completion of the works to be delayed then these may be compensation events. Compensation events will normally result in additional payment being made to the contractor and may result in adjustment of the completion date or key dates.

The contract limits compensation events to those, and only those, identified in the contract. If an event is not identified in the contract as being a compensation event then no claim should be submitted whether or not there has been a delay. The contract prevents the parties circumventing the contract by making a claim for damages at common law.

Events that normally constitute compensation events are set out in clause 60.1. There is also provision for the parties to add additional compensation events, but great care must be taken here as to how such events are defined.

Very broadly, compensation events tend to be those events that impact on the completion date, but are not the contractor’s fault. This might include events that are caused by the client, or neutral events such as exceptionally adverse weather. However, NEC3 does not treat compensation events as an allocation of blame, but rather an allocation of risk. Any risk that is not specifically identified as being attributed to the client is borne by the contractor.

Specific identified compensation events include:
*Instructions to change the service (unless this results from accepting a defect, or from a change requested by the contractor).
*Failure to provide access.
*Failure of the client to provide equipment, plant or materials.
*An instruction to halt, or delay the works.
*Work done by others.
*Conditions that could not reasonably have been foreseen.
*Exceptionally adverse weather (beyond one in ten year frequency).
*Force majeure (such as an epidemic or an 'act of God').

If an event occurs that the contractor considers to be a compensation event, they must notify the project manager within 8 weeks of becoming aware of the event (unless the project manager should have given notification). This is a condition precedent to making a claim, and compensation events cannot be considered if the 8 week deadline is missed. However the phrase ‘becoming aware of’ leaves some scope for dispute.

The project manager then has one week to agree whether they consider that it is a compensation event. The contractor then has up to three weeks to provide quotation, and the project manager a further two weeks to respond. When agreement has been reached, any changes to the contract are implemented.

The contract also makes provision for early warning procedures. Both parties must give early warning of anything that may delay the works, or increase costs. They should then hold an early warning meeting to discuss how to avoid or mitigate impacts on the project. If the contractor fails to give early warning of a possible delay to the works, or increase in costs, they will only be compensated for effects that would have remained anyway even if they had given early warning. If the contractor fails to give warning of an event that may give rise to a possible delay to the works, or increase in costs, within 8 weeks of becoming aware of the event, they will not be entitled to a change in price, completion date or key date, unless the project manager should have notified the event to the contractor but did not.

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Concurrent delay.
*Construction contract.
*Defects.
*Early warning notice.
*Extension of time.
*Force majeure.
*Liquidated damages.
*Loss and expense.
*NEC3.
*Prolongation.
*Project manager.
*Relevant events.
*Term contract.
*Variations.

[[Category:Client_procedures]]
[[Category:Construction_management]]
[[Category:Contracts_/_payment]]

Google authorship

2014-07-10T12:21:10Z

Gregor Harvie:

If you're a registered user it's possible to make your profile picture appear in Google search results next to articles you have written.

----
*First you need to have a [https://plus.google.com Google+ account]. 
*Then find your user ID. This will appear in the web address of your Google+ profile page, either as a long list of numbers, or a custom ID if you have one (usually a variation of your user name). 
*Then add your Google+ ID to your 'Page about me' on Designing Buildings Wiki. Just sign in, click Edit my profile and scroll down to Google+ authorship ID.
*When you create an article, move the cursor to the end of the article and click the insert signature button to identify yourself as the author:

[[File:Insert signature 2.jpg|RTENOTITLE]]
*Then you need to confirm to Google that you are the author of the article.
*Copy the web address of the article, sign in to Google+, go to you profile and click About. Then scroll down to Links, click edit and add the web address of your article to the Contributor To section by clicking Add custom link. 

Once Google have processed this, your profile picture will appear next to your article in Google search results.

----

It's a lot simpler than it sounds and well worth it for the extra profile it will give you. 

To find more details about this feature from Google, go to [https://support.google.com/webmasters/answer/2539557?hl=en Google authorship].

----

[[Category:Site_Information]]

Google authorship

2014-07-10T12:18:16Z

Gregor Harvie:

If you're a registered user it's possible to make your profile picture appear in Google search results next to articles that you have written:

----
*First you need to have a [https://plus.google.com Google+ account]. 
*Then find your user ID. This will appear in the web address of your goole+ profile page, either as a long list of numbers, or a custom ID if you have one (usually a variation of your user name). 
*Then add your Google+ ID to your 'Page about me' on Designing Buildings Wiki. Just sign in, click Edit my profile and scroll down to google+ authorship ID.
*When you create an article, move the cursor to the end of the article and click the insert signature button to identify yourself as the author:

[[File:Insert signature 2.jpg|RTENOTITLE]]
*Then you need to confirm to Google that you are the author of the article.
*Copy the web address of the article, sign in to Google+, go to you profile and click About. Then scroll down to Links, click edit and add the web address of your article to the Contributor To section by clicking Add custom link. 

Once Google have processed this, when your article appears in Google search results, your profile picture will appear next to it.

----

It's a lot simpler than it sounds and well worth it for the extra profile it will give you. 

To find more details about this feature from Google, go to [https://support.google.com/webmasters/answer/2539557?hl=en Google authorship].

----

[[Category:Site_Information]]

Google authorship

2014-07-10T12:17:26Z

Gregor Harvie:

If you're a registered user it's possible to make your profile picture appear in Google search results next to articles that you have written:
*First you need to have a [https://plus.google.com Google+ account].
*Then find your user ID. This will appear in the web address of your goole+ profile page, either as a long list of numbers, or a custom ID if you have one (usually a variation of your user name). 
*Then add your Google+ ID to your 'Page about me' on Designing Buildings Wiki. Just sign in, click Edit my profile and scroll down to google+ authorship ID.
*When you create an article, move the cursor to the end of the article and click the insert signature button to identify yourself as the author:

[[File:Insert signature 2.jpg|RTENOTITLE]]
*Then you need to confirm to Google that you are the author of the article.
*Copy the web address of the article, sign in to Google+, go to you profile and click About. Then scroll down to Links, click edit and add the web address of your article to the Contributor To section by clicking Add custom link. 

Once Google have processed this, when your article appears in Google search results, your profile picture will appear next to it.

It's a lot simpler than it sounds and well worth it for the extra profile it will give you.

----

To find more details about this feature from Google, go to [https://support.google.com/webmasters/answer/2539557?hl=en Google authorship].

----

[[Category:Site_Information]]

Test article

2014-07-08T19:26:30Z

Gregor Harvie:

test article

--[[User:Gregor Harvie|Gregor Harvie]] 20:26, 8 July 2014 (BST)

The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes

2014-06-13T13:40:29Z

Gregor Harvie:

A thesis submitted to the University of Wales for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor by GREGOR HARVIE. Welsh School of Architecture, University of Wales College of Cardiff, March 1996.

The findings in brief:
*Boundary models and CFD models need to be dynamically linked to properly represent the impact of thin boundaries whose temperatures can change very rapidly and very significantly (up to 15°c in a minute simply as a result of the sun coming out).
*Analysis of comfort must include radiant temperatures as well as air temperatures, particularly in spaces where there is a significant difference in temperature between the air in the space and the surfaces enclosing it, or where solar radiation penetrates the space.
*The difference in temperature between thin boundaries and the air they enclose, combined with smooth surface geometry results in a higher surface air velocity than is found in conventional spaces. This is similar to the downdraft generated by a cold window.
*Where there is likely to be a significant difference in temperature between a boundary and the air adjacent to it, a very small cell size (40mm or less) is required to properly simulate the increased surface air velocity at that surface and so the increased surface heat transfer. Failure to properly simulate this will result in an underestimation of the contribution the boundary makes to internal conditions.
*In non-cartesian spaces (ie where surfaces are not all vertical or horizontal, but may be inclined or curved) it is necessary to use a body-fitted cell grid (i.e. one in which the grid is distorted to follow the contours of the surface) to allow a small enough cell size adjacent to boundaries to properly simulate the flow of air across those boundaries. If a cartesian grid is used, a refined grid is required throughout the space just to simulate the flow of air across the non-cartesian boundaries and this is computationally impractical.

----

[[File:CFD.jpg|RTENOTITLE]]This thesis describes a programme of research the aim of which was to investigate the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membrane envelopes.

Initial analysis suggested that a fabric membrane can affect conditions within a space enclosed by it as a result of its internal surface temperature and the amount of radiation it directs into that space. In order to investigate these parameters, a test cell was constructed which allowed the thermal behaviour of a range of fabric membranes to be monitored.

The monitored data revealed that the thermal behaviour of fabric membranes is entirely dictated by their angular thermal optical properties. These properties were measured and a dynamic spread sheet model was developed which was able to simulate the monitored behaviour fairly accurately.

In order to investigate the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by such membranes, conditions within four existing fabric roofed buildings were monitored. The monitored data revealed that comfort temperatures could vary significantly from place to place within such spaces. These variations were produced by both the stratification of internal air temperatures and differences in internal radiant temperatures.

An attempt was made to simulate the behaviour of the buildings monitored, using a general applications CFD code in conjunction with information generated by the spread sheet model. Whilst some behaviour patterns could be simulated accurately using this approach, it was apparent that the simplification of boundary conditions in the CFD code meant it was unable to accurately predict strong internal stratification.

It was proposed that improving the reliability of this process would require the development of a specialist CFD model able to dynamically simulate both the behaviour of the fabric enclosure and the internal space.

----
*[[File:Contents.pdf|File:Contents.pdf|alt=File:Contents.pdf]]. Contents.
*[[File:Chapter 1.pdf|File:Chapter_1.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_1.pdf]]. Introduction.
*[[File:Chapter 2.pdf|File:Chapter_2.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_2.pdf]]. Subject Background.
*[[File:Chapter 3.pdf|File:Chapter_3.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_3.pdf]]. The Existing Body of Knowledge.
*[[File:Chapter 4.pdf|File:Chapter_4.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_4.pdf]]. Methodology.
*[[File:Chapter 5.pdf|File:Chapter_5.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_5.pdf]]. Monitoring the Thermal Behaviour of Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 6.pdf|File:Chapter_6.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_6.pdf]]. Measuring the Thermal Properties of Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 7.pdf|File:Chapter_7.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_7.pdf]]. Modelling the Thermal Behaviour of Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 8.pdf|File:Chapter_8.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_8.pdf]]. Monitoring the Thermal Behaviour of Spaces Enclosed by Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 9.pdf|File:Chapter_9.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_9.pdf]]. Modelling the Thermal Behaviour of Spaces Enclosed by Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 10.pdf|File:Chapter_10.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_10.pdf]]. Discussion.
*[[File:Chapter 11.pdf|File:Chapter_11.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_11.pdf]]. Conclusions.
*[[File:Appendices.pdf|File:Appendices.pdf|alt=File:Appendices.pdf]]. Appendices.

----

[[File:Thermal comfort in a fabric structure.jpg|710x425px|alt=Thermal comfort in a fabric structure.jpg]]

--[[User%3AGregor%20Harvie|Gregor Harvie]] 05:36, 22 May 2014 (BST)

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Computational Fluid Dynamics.
*ETFE.
*Sustainability.
*The history of fabric structures. 
*Thermal behaviour of architectural fabric structures (updated version of this research).
*Thermal comfort.
*Transparent insulation materials.
*U values.

[[Category:Products_/_components]]

Thermal behaviour of architectural fabric structures

2014-06-13T13:39:24Z

Gregor Harvie:

= Introduction =

Fabric structures are perhaps the oldest form of human-made shelter. Remains have been found of simple structures constructed from animal skins draped between sticks dating back over 40,000 years, and it is likely these were the first type of dwellings constructed by humans.

Simple tents, such as the black tent, suited a nomadic lifestyle. Lightweight and easy to carry, they could be moved from place to place in harsh environments where it was necessary to keep on the move to stay alive. Where resources were more plentiful, it was possible to settle down and build permanent shelters in the form of huts. In intermediate environments, a whole range of composite structures developed, part tent, part hut, most notably the Yurt, a demountable hut, still in use in places such as Mongolia today.

This combination of a fundamental requirement for shelter, moderated by practicality and resource availability, still drives the design of our buildings today. Just like the earliest tents, modern fabric structures tend to be used in situations where basic shelter needs to be provided with the minimum material. However, with little to separate the inside from the outside, these spaces do not behave like conventional buildings, they provide little insulation and can be expensive to heat or cool. As a result, spaces under fabric roofs are often characterised as ‘enclosed outdoor spaces’.

This quality of ‘enclosed outdoor space’ can be appropriate for stadiums or atria, indoor sports facilities, shopping malls, airports, stations, and temporary, demountable structures like stages, theatres, pavilions, exhibition centres and even military accommodation. In these sorts of spaces, occupants are not expecting a steady 21 °C. They tend to be used by people wearing outdoor clothing, often moving around and not staying for long. If it gets too cold they may be prepared to put on a coat; if it gets too hot, to take it off.

= Thermal design =

== What is thermal design? ==

Designers tune the thermal characteristics of building envelopes so that they moderate external environmental conditions and maintain internal conditions using the minimum resources of materials and fuel.

This is not straightforward however, as external conditions change throughout the seasons and time of day, meaning for example, that the building envelope may sometimes be required to contain heat, sometimes to capture it, and sometimes to reject it. And the building fabric may have to do this at the same time as performing multiple, conflicting roles, such as; allowing access, providing security, creating a suitable acoustic environment, and so on.

In addition, making a building ‘comfortable’ is not as simple as delivering an average internal air temperature of 21 °C throughout the year. Thermal comfort is dependent on a range of environmental factors in addition to air temperature, such as; air velocity, radiant temperature, relative humidity and the uniformity of conditions. It also depends on personal factors such as; clothing, metabolic heat, state of health, acclimatisation, expectations, and even access to food and drink.

== The thermal behaviour of conventional buildings ==

Conventional spaces, such as offices or houses, tend to tackle the complex issue of thermal comfort by creating fairly uniform, stable conditions throughout the day and year. These stable conditions are created by a combination of thermal mass and thermal insulation, topped up by building services systems. Thermal mass evens out variations in internal and external conditions, absorbing heat as temperatures rise above the average and releasing it as they fall below. Insulation separates the inside from the outside, so that internal conditions can be maintained with the minimum of energy.

== The thermal behaviour of architectural fabrics ==

Architectural fabrics offer neither thermal mass nor insulation.

Whatever happens on the outside will transmit to the inside almost instantly, and system inputs such as heating and cooling will quickly be lost through the building envelope. Add to this, a very large surface area which gets hot when the sun comes out, gets cold when it goes behind a cloud, and transmits light and solar radiation; and the situation becomes very complex. Thermal conditions in the interior can change quickly, radiant temperatures can be significantly different to air temperatures and both can change from one part of the space to another.

[[File:Thermal comfort in a fabric structure.jpg|RTENOTITLE]] 

= The thermal properties of architectural fabrics =

== The thermal characteristics of architectural fabrics ==

Typically, architectural fabrics are around 1mm thick and as a result have a mass of around 1 kg/m². In comparison, a single-leaf brick wall has a mass of approximately 200 kg/m².

The U-value of a fabric (a measure of its thermal conductivity), will be approximately 5 W/m²K. In comparison, the U-value requirement for a roof in the UK is closer to 0.2 W/m²K.

This means that properties such as thickness, mass and thermal conductivity, the bedrock of conventional thermal analysis, have no significance for architectural fabrics. For all practical purposes, the mass of architectural fabrics is zero and so the thermal resistance of their mass is zero.

As a result, architectural fabrics are particularly responsive to changes in conditions, being affected much faster and much more significantly than most other building materials. Even in the relatively benign UK climate, on a sunny day, an architectural fabric can become more than 20 °C hotter than the external air temperature, and surface temperatures of 45 to 50 °C have been recorded for fabrics with high solar absorptance. Conversely, under a clear night sky, they can become 3.5 °C cooler than the external air temperature (Harvie, 1995).

In addition, there is no significant time lag between a temperature change on their outside surface and the resulting change in their inside surface (Harvie, 1995). In comparison, a 25 mm wooden board has a 25-minute time lag and a brick wall a 5-hour time lag (Evans, 1980).

== The optical properties of architectural fabrics ==

With no thermal mass and no thermal insulation, architectural fabrics affect the spaces they enclose through the amount of solar radiation they transmit directly into a space and the heat they introduce into the space as a result of the temperature of their internal surface.

The amount of solar radiation which transmits directly through architectural fabrics is relatively easy to calculate, based on their solar translucency.

The heat they introduce into the space as a result of their surface temperature is a little more complicated, based on their:
*Solar absorption.
*Convective heat exchange with the adjacent air, inside and out.
*Long-wave infrared radiation exchange with internal and external surroundings.

Solar absorption is an optical property which can be measured.

With a surface which is effectively entirely smooth, convection is a function of surface temperature, air temperature and air velocity.

Long-wave infrared heat transfer is a function of the surface temperature of the fabric, the emissivity (radiant absorptance) of the fabric and the surface temperature and emissivity of the surfaces surrounding the fabric (including the sky).

To understand the behaviour of architectural fabrics therefore, the properties which need to be measured are:
*Solar transittance.
*Solar absorptance.
*Emissivity (or long-wave infrared absorptance).

These are thermal optical properties. They are all dependent on the angle of incidence. As the angle of incident radiation increases, so the reflectance will increase, the absorption (in percentage terms) of the remaining incident radiation will increase and the transmittance will reduce. To accurately model the behaviour of architectural fabrics therefore, it is necessary to know their angular solar absorptance, transmittance and emissivity.

== Manufacturers’ specifications ==

Detailed information about the thermal optical properties of architectural fabrics can be difficult to obtain. The standard information commonly available on specification sheets may include a U-value, a single figure for solar reflectance, absorptance and transmittance, and perhaps a shading coefficient which describes the amount of solar heat gain through a material compared to the amount of solar heat gain through a standard sheet of glass.

The properties of architectural fabrics which are commonly available are therefore not always those required for thermal analysis. This means that if accurate modelling is being undertaken, either a specific request has to be made to manufacturers, or measurements taken, or assumptions made based on the known properties of similar materials.

= Modelling the thermal behaviour of architectural fabrics =

Once the relevant material properties have been ascertained, the thermal behaviour of architectural fabrics can be predicted under different environmental conditions.

The environmental conditions which will affect the behaviour of a fabric are:
*Position:
#The fabric’s location. That is, its orientation and angle of inclination, and if a solar model is being used rather than actual data, its latitude and longitude.
#The geometry of external surrounding surfaces (including exposure to the sky).
#The geometry of internal surrounding surfaces.
*External conditions:
#The amount of direct and diffuse solar radiation (or the amount of cloud cover).
#The temperatures of surrounding surfaces (including the sky).
#Air temperature.
#Surface air velocity.
#Humidity, if the potential for evaporation is considered significant.
*Internal conditions:
#Surface temperatures.
#Air temperature.
#Surface air velocity.

Pre-existing models such as geometric models, solar models and standard approximations for conditions such as external surface temperatures, sky temperatures and so on can be used to provide much of this information with a reasonable degree of accuracy.

However, there will not be a pre-existing model for the thermal behaviour of the enclosed space. Internal geometry may be known, but internal conditions will not. Perhaps surprisingly therefore, the complexity in modelling behaviour is determining the interior rather than exterior conditions.

The relationship between the fabric and the interior is a dynamic one; for example, on a sunny day, the hotter the fabric is, the hotter the interior will become, and so the hotter the fabric will become, and so on. In assessing the importance of this dynamic relationship, and so how critical it is that it is accurately modelled, it is necessary to assess the relative significance of all the different heat transfer mechanisms that affect the temperature of the fabric.

[[File:Heat transfer mechanisms of fabric structures.jpg|RTENOTITLE]] 

It can be seen that the main heat transfer mechanisms affecting the behaviour of fabrics are solar absorption and long-wave infrared radiation exchange with the outside. The most significant impact on the interior is solar transmission, followed by internal long-wave infrared exchange, and then convection.

This means that whilst the relationship between the fabric and the interior is the most complicated to model, the external conditions are much more significant in terms of the behaviour of the fabric. As a result, when modelling behaviour, it may be possible to make some broad assumptions about internal conditions without significantly affecting the final results.

= The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by architectural fabrics =

These spaces are the product of their contrasting surroundings. Typically, they will have a lightweight fabric roof above them, but they will sit on a thermally-massive base and will have perimeter walls of a relatively conventional construction. This means that the enclosed space is sandwiched between a roof which can change temperature very rapidly, and can be either hotter or colder than the outside air temperature, and a much more massive base which may barely change temperature through the course of the year.

As a result, internal conditions can vary significantly from place to place depending on proximity to either the lightweight roof or the massive base. Even in the UK, on a hot sunny day, temperatures inside a typical fabric structure can be more than 10 °C higher close to the fabric than they are in the area where occupants are likely to be, close to the ground. This variation is a product of both air temperature and radiant temperature. Not only is the fabric itself hotter, and so radiant temperatures are higher closer to it, but as warm internal air tends to rise, so it will accumulate under the fabric roof, producing higher air temperatures as well. This positive stratification can be compounded further by directly-transmitted solar radiation which is more likely to be shaded by obstructions lower down in the space.

Conversely, under a clear sky, with little solar radiation, for example early on a clear winter morning, the fabric temperature may drop below the external air temperature, producing negative stratification; where temperatures are lower near the fabric than they are in the occupied zone. Negative stratification tends to be less significant than positive stratification, partly because the fabric is only likely to become a few degrees colder than the external air temperature, but also because internal air will still tend to stratify positively, despite the cool temperature of the fabric. 

[[File:Interior behaviour of fabric structures.jpg|RTENOTITLE]]

It is very important therefore that when internal conditions are modelled, a large number of locations is assessed and that both air and radiant temperatures are considered. Analysis which treats boundaries or internal spaces as single elements, which may be adequate for simple conventional spaces, is not appropriate in these circumstances. The only accurate method for modelling the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by architectural fabrics is with the use of Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software.

= The use of computational fluid dynamics =

== An introduction to computational fluid dynamics ==

[[File:CFD.jpg|RTENOTITLE]] 

CFD works by dividing a space into a large number of 'cells' representing the air within the space. The cells are surrounded by a number of boundaries which represent the surfaces that enclose the space and any openings into it. The temperature of the boundaries, air movement at openings, inputs from building services systems, and so on, are then added. The CFD software will then solve equations representing the flow of air from each cell to those surrounding it, and the exchange of heat between the boundary surfaces and the cells adjacent to them.

Simulations might be run for a number of different scenarios, testing the behaviour of a space under different levels of occupancy, different climatic conditions, in different modes of building services operation, with different openings between spaces and so on. This can build up an overall picture of how a building is likely to behave under normal operating conditions as well as during unusual or extreme conditions.

== The limitations of computational fluid dynamics ==

Carrying out CFD modelling is time consuming and costly, and so it is important to be clear what is being modelled and why. A decision about whether or not to carry out CFD modelling and to what level of detail will need to consider issues such as:
*What are the design issues being assessed and why?
*What are the risks of not undertaking analysis?
*How serious would the consequences be if the completed building performed poorly?
*Would it be possible to mitigate problems if they occurred?
*What alternatives are there to carrying out detailed analysis? For example, is it possible to visit at a similar existing structure?
*Is there the capability, budget and time to adequately model what is required?
*What potential is there to make adjustments or select different options if problems are found?

Even if a decision is made to carry out detailed thermal analysis, existing techniques have limitations which may influence the accuracy of results:
*Detailed information about the angular optical properties of the materials being considered may not be available.
*At present, boundary models suitable for simulating the behaviour of architectural fabrics have not been dynamically linked to CFD models. This means that boundary conditions have to be modelled first using a specialist model, and then the data imported into the CFD model.
*Computational power and data storage capabilities still determine the amount of analysis that can be done, generally limiting it to snapshots of behaviour under specific steady-state conditions.
*Little systematic validation has been carried out to verify the accuracy of CFD models in simulating the behaviour of spaces enclosed by architectural fabric structures.

= The future thermal behaviour of architectural fabric structures =

== The future of architectural fabrics ==

This article has focused on simple, single-skin architectural fabrics, however, more complex configurations have existed for some time, and more are being developed:
*Multi-layer fabrics analogous to double glazing can give greater levels of insulation, with double-layer fabrics achieving U-values of 2 to 2.5 w/m²K (Architen Landrell, 2009).
*Inflated cushions of transparent films such as ETFE (ethylenetetrafluoroethylene) made up of as many as five layers can provide thermal insulation equivalent to double or triple glazing but for a fraction of the weight.
*Fabrics with low-emissivity coatings have been developed to reduce the absorption and emission of long-wave infrared radiation from the fabric surface.
*Sandwich constructions have been developed incorporating insulation and giving U-values as low as 0.2 w/m²K (Architen Landrell, 2009).
*Composites envelopes have been developed which include elements of other materials, such as insulated panels, glazing or photovoltaics.
*Images can be printed on the surface of the fabric. This has a significant impact on optical properties, generally increasing solar absorption but reducing solar transmission.
*Aerogels incorporated into architectural fabrics can achieve a U-value of 0.76 w/m²K for just 2.5 cm of thickness (Birdair, 2011).
*Phase change materials just 1mm thick have been developed which reduce internal temperature changes by storing latent heat in the fabric enclosure by means of a solid-liquid phase change. (Pause, 2008).

These developments create exciting new possibilities which significantly increase the range of building types for which architectural fabrics might be appropriate. They have the potential to increase insulation, create an effective thermal mass and tailor optical properties to optimise efficiency without significantly increasing weight.

== The future of buildings incorporating architectural fabrics ==

As human population grows and we inhabit more and more of the planet, so we will be forced to colonise areas where there are more extreme conditions. This, coupled with the effects of climate change, means we may be subject to increasingly regular and severe weather events. Fabric structures, which have always proved to be effective at the boundaries of conventional environments, are likely to be popular under these circumstances. Despite their thermal limitations, their ability to provide basic shelter at low cost, and the potential to enclose large areas in hostile conditions will doubtless see an increase in their use.

We can begin to see the implications of this sort of change with developments such as the 2022 football world cup in Qatar where extreme conditions have elevated thermal performance from the bottom of the priority list to the top. When international athletes are exerting themselves in a hot climate, providing an enclosed outdoor space and hoping that they will adapt is no longer adequate. If modelling is not accurate enough to give total confidence about the level of performance that will be delivered, designers find they have to resort to other solutions, ranging from the construction of physical mock-ups, to simply hiring in enough building services plant to cope with all eventualities.

Couple these more extreme conditions with increasing regulations and increasing energy prices, and the future for the thermal design of fabric structures may be a challenging one.

== The future of thermally modelling architectural fabric structures ==

At present the thermal analysis of architectural fabrics is based on a number of approximations and assumptions. For the most part, these simplifications have not proved significant. The types of spaces which architectural fabrics are used for do not demand high levels of thermal performance and other design considerations tend to have a higher priority. Where performance is critical, a margin for error can be built into the sizing of building services systems so that problems which may occur in the finished building can be mitigated.

But with new materials, new building types, a changing global climate, soaring energy costs, and the availability of software to inexperienced practitioners, the totality of issues previously considered insignificant are beginning to matter.

Future developments which could help improve thermal analysis might include:
*Better availability of manufacturers’ data.
*The inclusion of more accurate boundary models within CFD models.
*Increased computational power enabling dynamic modelling of changing behaviour over long periods of time.
*Accurate modelling of evaporation and condensation.
*Validation of models with monitored data.
*Lower-cost modelling to enable more wide-spread use.

= Acknowledgements =

The author would like to acknowledge the assistance of Ian Tavener, Matthew Birchall and Bernardo Vazquez from Buro Happold for providing material and advice in the preparation of this chapter. --[[User%3AGregor%20Harvie|Gregor Harvie]] 14:23, 13 June 2014 (BST)

= Find out more =

== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ==
*Aerogel.
*CFD.
*ETFE.
*Khan Shatyr Entertainment Centre.
*London 2012 Olympic Stadium.
*The development of structural membranes.
*The history of fabric structures.
*The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes.
*Thermal comfort.
*Transparent insulation materials.

== External references ==
*Architen Landrell (2009) ''Using PTFE glass cloth, Basic information about the properties of PTFE coated glass cloth and how to use it for your project'', [pdf] Architen Landrell Associates Limited, Available from:
*[http://www.architen.com/technical/articles/using-ptfe-glass-cloth http://www.architen.com/technical/articles/using-ptfe-glass-cloth] [Accessed 14 January 2014].
*Birdair Inc. (2011) ''Performance Characteristics: Tensotherm ™'', [pdf] Amherst, NY, Birdair Inc., Available from:
*[http://www.taiyo-europe.com/downloads/Tensotherm_PerfCharac.pdf http://www.taiyo-europe.com/downloads/Tensotherm_PerfCharac.pdf] [Accessed 14 January 2014].
*Devulder, T., Wilson, R. and Chilton, J.C. (2007) ''The thermal behaviour of buildings incorporating single skin tensile membrane structures'', Oxford University Press, International Journal of Low Carbon Technologies, 2 (2), 195-213.
*Evans, M. (1980) ''Housing, Climate and Comfort'', London, The Architectural Press, 81.
*Harvie, G. (1995) ''An investigation into the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes'', PhD Thesis, Cardiff, Cardiff University of Wales.
*Meyer, F. (2009) ''Low-e coatings: Soft coverings for demanding applications'', Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany, FIS Karlsruhe, BINE-projektinfo 05/09.
*Pause, B. (2008) ''Improving thermal-regulating properties for membrane structures'', Industrial Fabric Structures Association, Fabric Architecture, Available from: [http://fabricarchitecturemag.com/articles/0308_f3_thermal.html http://fabricarchitecturemag.com/articles/0308_f3_thermal.html] [Accessed 14 January 2014].
*Poirazis, H., Kragh, M., and Hogg, C. (2009) ''Energy modelling of ETFE membranes in building applications'', Eleventh International IBPSA Conference, Glasgow, Scotland.
*Semper, G. (1979) ''The Four Elements of Architecture and other Writings'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 254.
*Solenberger, F.R. (1979) ''Thermal Gain of Architectural Fabrics'', Internal report to P. Biesert, E.I. Du Pont De Nemours & Company, November 14, (Unpublished).
*Zhai, Z., Chen, Q., Haves, P. and Klems, J.H. (2002) ''On approaches to couple energy simulation and computational fluid dynamics programs'', Building and Environment, 37, 857-864.

[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Theory]]

Thermal behaviour of architectural fabric structures

2014-06-13T13:23:08Z

Gregor Harvie:

= Introduction =

Fabric structures are perhaps the oldest form of human-made shelter. Remains have been found of simple structures constructed from animal skins draped between sticks dating back over 40,000 years, and it is likely these were the first type of dwellings constructed by humans.

Simple tents, such as the black tent, suited a nomadic lifestyle. Lightweight and easy to carry, they could be moved from place to place in harsh environments where it was necessary to keep on the move to stay alive. Where resources were more plentiful, it was possible to settle down and build permanent shelters in the form of huts. In intermediate environments, a whole range of composite structures developed, part tent, part hut, most notably the Yurt, a demountable hut, still in use in places such as Mongolia today.

This combination of a fundamental requirement for shelter, moderated by practicality and resource availability, still drives the design of our buildings today. Just like the earliest tents, modern fabric structures tend to be used in situations where basic shelter needs to be provided with the minimum material. However, with little to separate the inside from the outside, these spaces do not behave like conventional buildings, they provide little insulation and can be expensive to heat or cool. As a result, spaces under fabric roofs are often characterised as ‘enclosed outdoor spaces’.

This quality of ‘enclosed outdoor space’ can be appropriate for stadiums or atria, indoor sports facilities, shopping malls, airports, stations, and temporary, demountable structures like stages, theatres, pavilions, exhibition centres and even military accommodation. In these sorts of spaces, occupants are not expecting a steady 21 °C. They tend to be used by people wearing outdoor clothing, often moving around and not staying for long. If it gets too cold they may be prepared to put on a coat; if it gets too hot, to take it off.

= Thermal design =

== What is thermal design? ==

Designers tune the thermal characteristics of building envelopes so that they moderate external environmental conditions and maintain internal conditions using the minimum resources of materials and fuel.

This is not straightforward however, as external conditions change throughout the seasons and time of day, meaning for example, that the building envelope may sometimes be required to contain heat, sometimes to capture it, and sometimes to reject it. And the building fabric may have to do this at the same time as performing multiple, conflicting roles, such as; allowing access, providing security, creating a suitable acoustic environment, and so on.

In addition, making a building ‘comfortable’ is not as simple as delivering an average internal air temperature of 21 °C throughout the year. Thermal comfort is dependent on a range of environmental factors in addition to air temperature, such as; air velocity, radiant temperature, relative humidity and the uniformity of conditions. It also depends on personal factors such as; clothing, metabolic heat, state of health, acclimatisation, expectations, and even access to food and drink.

== The thermal behaviour of conventional buildings ==

Conventional spaces, such as offices or houses, tend to tackle the complex issue of thermal comfort by creating fairly uniform, stable conditions throughout the day and year. These stable conditions are created by a combination of thermal mass and thermal insulation, topped up by building services systems. Thermal mass evens out variations in internal and external conditions, absorbing heat as temperatures rise above the average and releasing it as they fall below. Insulation separates the inside from the outside, so that internal conditions can be maintained with the minimum of energy.

== The thermal behaviour of architectural fabrics ==

Architectural fabrics offer neither thermal mass nor insulation.

Whatever happens on the outside will transmit to the inside almost instantly, and system inputs such as heating and cooling will quickly be lost through the building envelope. Add to this, a very large surface area which gets hot when the sun comes out, gets cold when it goes behind a cloud, and transmits light and solar radiation; and the situation becomes very complex. Thermal conditions in the interior can change quickly, radiant temperatures can be significantly different to air temperatures and both can change from one part of the space to another.

[[File:Thermal comfort in a fabric structure.jpg|RTENOTITLE]] 

= The thermal properties of architectural fabrics =

== The thermal characteristics of architectural fabrics ==

Typically, architectural fabrics are around 1mm thick and as a result have a mass of around 1 kg/m². In comparison, a single-leaf brick wall has a mass of approximately 200 kg/m².

The U-value of a fabric (a measure of its thermal conductivity), will be approximately 5 W/m²K. In comparison, the U-value requirement for a roof in the UK is closer to 0.2 W/m²K.

This means that properties such as thickness, mass and thermal conductivity, the bedrock of conventional thermal analysis, have no significance for architectural fabrics. For all practical purposes, the mass of architectural fabrics is zero and so the thermal resistance of their mass is zero.

As a result, architectural fabrics are particularly responsive to changes in conditions, being affected much faster and much more significantly than most other building materials. Even in the relatively benign UK climate, on a sunny day, an architectural fabric can become more than 20 °C hotter than the external air temperature, and surface temperatures of 45 to 50 °C have been recorded for fabrics with high solar absorptance. Conversely, under a clear night sky, they can become 3.5 °C cooler than the external air temperature (Harvie, 1995).

In addition, there is no significant time lag between a temperature change on their outside surface and the resulting change in their inside surface (Harvie, 1995). In comparison, a 25 mm wooden board has a 25-minute time lag and a brick wall a 5-hour time lag (Evans, 1980).

== The optical properties of architectural fabrics ==

With no thermal mass and no thermal insulation, architectural fabrics affect the spaces they enclose through the amount of solar radiation they transmit directly into a space and the heat they introduce into the space as a result of the temperature of their internal surface.

The amount of solar radiation which transmits directly through architectural fabrics is relatively easy to calculate, based on their solar translucency.

The heat they introduce into the space as a result of their surface temperature is a little more complicated, based on their:
*Solar absorption.
*Convective heat exchange with the adjacent air, inside and out.
*Long-wave infrared radiation exchange with internal and external surroundings.

Solar absorption is an optical property which can be measured.

With a surface which is effectively entirely smooth, convection is a function of surface temperature, air temperature and air velocity.

Long-wave infrared heat transfer is a function of the surface temperature of the fabric, the emissivity (radiant absorptance) of the fabric and the surface temperature and emissivity of the surfaces surrounding the fabric (including the sky).

To understand the behaviour of architectural fabrics therefore, the properties which need to be measured are:
*Solar transittance.
*Solar absorptance.
*Emissivity (or long-wave infrared absorptance).

These are thermal optical properties. They are all dependent on the angle of incidence. As the angle of incident radiation increases, so the reflectance will increase, the absorption (in percentage terms) of the remaining incident radiation will increase and the transmittance will reduce. To accurately model the behaviour of architectural fabrics therefore, it is necessary to know their angular solar absorptance, transmittance and emissivity.

== Manufacturers’ specifications ==

Detailed information about the thermal optical properties of architectural fabrics can be difficult to obtain. The standard information commonly available on specification sheets may include a U-value, a single figure for solar reflectance, absorptance and transmittance, and perhaps a shading coefficient which describes the amount of solar heat gain through a material compared to the amount of solar heat gain through a standard sheet of glass.

The properties of architectural fabrics which are commonly available are therefore not always those required for thermal analysis. This means that if accurate modelling is being undertaken, either a specific request has to be made to manufacturers, or measurements taken, or assumptions made based on the known properties of similar materials.

= Modelling the thermal behaviour of architectural fabrics =

Once the relevant material properties have been ascertained, the thermal behaviour of architectural fabrics can be predicted under different environmental conditions.

The environmental conditions which will affect the behaviour of a fabric are:
*Position:
#The fabric’s location. That is, its orientation and angle of inclination, and if a solar model is being used rather than actual data, its latitude and longitude.
#The geometry of external surrounding surfaces (including exposure to the sky).
#The geometry of internal surrounding surfaces.
*External conditions:
#The amount of direct and diffuse solar radiation (or the amount of cloud cover).
#The temperatures of surrounding surfaces (including the sky).
#Air temperature.
#Surface air velocity.
#Humidity, if the potential for evaporation is considered significant.
*Internal conditions:
#Surface temperatures.
#Air temperature.
#Surface air velocity.

Pre-existing models such as geometric models, solar models and standard approximations for conditions such as external surface temperatures, sky temperatures and so on can be used to provide much of this information with a reasonable degree of accuracy.

However, there will not be a pre-existing model for the thermal behaviour of the enclosed space. Internal geometry may be known, but internal conditions will not. Perhaps surprisingly therefore, the complexity in modelling behaviour is determining the interior rather than exterior conditions.

The relationship between the fabric and the interior is a dynamic one; for example, on a sunny day, the hotter the fabric is, the hotter the interior will become, and so the hotter the fabric will become, and so on. In assessing the importance of this dynamic relationship, and so how critical it is that it is accurately modelled, it is necessary to assess the relative significance of all the different heat transfer mechanisms that affect the temperature of the fabric.

[[File:Heat transfer mechanisms of fabric structures.jpg|RTENOTITLE]] 

It can be seen that the main heat transfer mechanisms affecting the behaviour of fabrics are solar absorption and long-wave infrared radiation exchange with the outside. The most significant impact on the interior is solar transmission, followed by internal long-wave infrared exchange, and then convection.

This means that whilst the relationship between the fabric and the interior is the most complicated to model, the external conditions are much more significant in terms of the behaviour of the fabric. As a result, when modelling behaviour, it may be possible to make some broad assumptions about internal conditions without significantly affecting the final results.

= The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by architectural fabrics =

These spaces are the product of their contrasting surroundings. Typically, they will have a lightweight fabric roof above them, but they will sit on a thermally-massive base and will have perimeter walls of a relatively conventional construction. This means that the enclosed space is sandwiched between a roof which can change temperature very rapidly, and can be either hotter or colder than the outside air temperature, and a much more massive base which may barely change temperature through the course of the year.

As a result, internal conditions can vary significantly from place to place depending on proximity to either the lightweight roof or the massive base. Even in the UK, on a hot sunny day, temperatures inside a typical fabric structure can be more than 10 °C higher close to the fabric than they are in the area where occupants are likely to be, close to the ground. This variation is a product of both air temperature and radiant temperature. Not only is the fabric itself hotter, and so radiant temperatures are higher closer to it, but as warm internal air tends to rise, so it will accumulate under the fabric roof, producing higher air temperatures as well. This positive stratification can be compounded further by directly-transmitted solar radiation which is more likely to be shaded by obstructions lower down in the space.

Conversely, under a clear sky, with little solar radiation, for example early on a clear winter morning, the fabric temperature may drop below the external air temperature, producing negative stratification; where temperatures are lower near the fabric than they are in the occupied zone. Negative stratification tends to be less significant than positive stratification, partly because the fabric is only likely to become a few degrees colder than the external air temperature, but also because internal air will still tend to stratify positively, despite the cool temperature of the fabric. 

[[File:Interior behaviour of fabric structures.jpg|RTENOTITLE]]

It is very important therefore that when internal conditions are modelled, a large number of locations is assessed and that both air and radiant temperatures are considered. Analysis which treats boundaries or internal spaces as single elements, which may be adequate for simple conventional spaces, is not appropriate in these circumstances. The only accurate method for modelling the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by architectural fabrics is with the use of Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software.

= The use of computational fluid dynamics =

== An introduction to computational fluid dynamics ==

[[File:CFD.jpg|RTENOTITLE]] 

CFD works by dividing a space into a large number of 'cells' representing the air within the space. The cells are surrounded by a number of boundaries which represent the surfaces that enclose the space and any openings into it. The temperature of the boundaries, air movement at openings, inputs from building services systems, and so on, are then added. The CFD software will then solve equations representing the flow of air from each cell to those surrounding it, and the exchange of heat between the boundary surfaces and the cells adjacent to them.

Simulations might be run for a number of different scenarios, testing the behaviour of a space under different levels of occupancy, different climatic conditions, in different modes of building services operation, with different openings between spaces and so on. This can build up an overall picture of how a building is likely to behave under normal operating conditions as well as during unusual or extreme conditions.

== The limitations of computational fluid dynamics ==

Carrying out CFD modelling is time consuming and costly, and so it is important to be clear what is being modelled and why. A decision about whether or not to carry out CFD modelling and to what level of detail will need to consider issues such as:
*What are the design issues being assessed and why?
*What are the risks of not undertaking analysis?
*How serious would the consequences be if the completed building performed poorly?
*Would it be possible to mitigate problems if they occurred?
*What alternatives are there to carrying out detailed analysis? For example, is it possible to visit at a similar existing structure?
*Is there the capability, budget and time to adequately model what is required?
*What potential is there to make adjustments or select different options if problems are found?

Even if a decision is made to carry out detailed thermal analysis, existing techniques have limitations which may influence the accuracy of results:
*Detailed information about the angular optical properties of the materials being considered may not be available.
*At present, boundary models suitable for simulating the behaviour of architectural fabrics have not been dynamically linked to CFD models. This means that boundary conditions have to be modelled first using a specialist model, and then the data imported into the CFD model. This obviously has limitations in modelling dynamic heat transfers such as internal surface convection, however as the behaviour of the fabric is largely dependent on external conditions, it may deemed to be within acceptable tolerances.
*Computational power and data storage capabilities still determine the amount of analysis that can be done, generally limiting it to snapshots of behaviour under specific steady-state conditions.
*Little systematic validation has been carried out to verify the accuracy of CFD models in simulating the behaviour of spaces enclosed by architectural fabric structures.

= The future thermal behaviour of architectural fabric structures =

== The future of architectural fabrics ==

This article has focused on simple, single-skin architectural fabrics. This is the most prevalent form of architectural fabric structure, and its simplicity is helpful for explaining the fundamental properties of these materials and the spaces they enclose. However, more complex configurations have existed for some time, and more are being developed:
*Multi-layer fabrics analogous to double glazing can give greater levels of insulation, with double-layer fabrics achieving U-values of 2 to 2.5 w/m²K (Architen Landrell, 2009).
*Inflated cushions of transparent films such as ETFE (ethylenetetrafluoroethylene) made up of as many as five layers can provide thermal insulation equivalent to double or triple glazing but for a fraction of the weight.
*Fabrics with low-emissivity coatings have been developed to reduce the absorption and emission of long-wave infrared radiation from the fabric surface.
*Sandwich constructions have been developed incorporating insulation and giving U-values as low as 0.2 w/m²K (Architen Landrell, 2009).
*Composites envelopes have been developed which include elements of other materials, such as insulated panels, glazing or photovoltaics.
*Images can be printed on the surface of the fabric. This has a significant impact on optical properties, generally increasing solar absorption but reducing solar transmission.
*Fabrics have been developed which are insulated with aerogels just a centimetre or so thick. Aerogels incorporated into architectural fabrics can achieve a U-value of 0.76 w/m²K for just 2.5 cm of thickness (Birdair, 2011).
*Phase change materials just 1mm thick have been developed which reduce internal temperature changes by storing latent heat in the fabric enclosure by means of a solid-liquid phase change. (Pause, 2008).

These developments create exciting new possibilities which significantly increase the range of building types for which architectural fabrics might be appropriate. They have the potential to increase insulation, create an effective thermal mass and tailor optical properties to optimise efficiency without significantly increasing weight.

== The future of buildings incorporating architectural fabrics ==

As human population grows and we inhabit more and more of the planet, so we will be forced to colonise areas where there are more extreme conditions. This, coupled with the effects of climate change, means we may be subject to increasingly regular and severe weather events. Fabric structures, which have always proved to be effective at the boundaries of conventional environments, are likely to be popular under these circumstances. Despite their thermal limitations, their ability to provide basic shelter at low cost, and the potential to enclose large areas in hostile conditions will doubtless see an increase in their use.

We can begin to see the implications of this sort of change with developments such as the 2022 football world cup in Qatar where extreme conditions have elevated thermal performance from the bottom of the priority list to the top. When international athletes are exerting themselves in a hot climate, providing an enclosed outdoor space and hoping that they will adapt is no longer adequate. If modelling is not accurate enough to give total confidence about the level of performance that will be delivered, designers find they have to resort to other solutions, ranging from the construction of physical mock-ups, to simply hiring in enough building services plant to cope with all eventualities.

Couple these more extreme conditions with increasing regulations and increasing energy prices, and the future for the thermal design of fabric structures may be a challenging one. If clients start being penalised for the inefficiency of their buildings, it is likely that they in turn will start to contract designers to deliver the performance they have promised and to claim damages if they do not.

== The future of thermally modelling architectural fabric structures ==

At present the thermal analysis of architectural fabrics is based on a number of approximations and assumptions. From the fundamental properties of the fabrics themselves to the availability of models which simulate their behaviour and our ability to model the dynamic relationship between the fabric boundary the space it encloses.

At the moment, for the most part, these simplifications have not proved significant. The types of spaces which architectural fabrics are used for do not demand high levels of thermal performance and other design considerations tend to have a higher priority. Where performance is critical, a margin for error can be built into the sizing of building services systems so that problems which may occur in the finished building can be mitigated.

As a result, analysis is dependent on the experience of the person doing the work, requiring a clear understanding of whether thermal investigation is necessary, how it should be done, what conditions should be assessed, how problems might be dealt with, and so on. But with new materials, new building types, a changing global climate, soaring energy costs, and the availability of software to inexperienced practitioners, the totality of issues previously considered insignificant are beginning to matter.

Future developments which could help improve thermal analysis might include:
*Better availability of manufacturers’ data.
*The inclusion of more accurate boundary models within CFD models.
*Increased computational power enabling dynamic modelling of changing behaviour over long periods of time.
*Accurate modelling of evaporation and condensation.
*Validation of models with monitored data.
*Lower-cost modelling to enable more wide-spread use.

= Acknowledgements =

The author would like to acknowledge the assistance of Ian Tavener, Matthew Birchall and Bernardo Vazquez from Buro Happold for providing material and advice in the preparation of this chapter. --[[User:Gregor Harvie|Gregor Harvie]] 14:23, 13 June 2014 (BST)

= Find out more =

== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ==
*Aerogel.
*CFD.
*ETFE.
*Khan Shatyr Entertainment Centre.
*London 2012 Olympic Stadium.
*The development of structural membranes.
*The history of fabric structures.
*The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes.
*Thermal comfort.
*Transparent insulation materials.

== External references ==
*Architen Landrell (2009) ''Using PTFE glass cloth, Basic information about the properties of PTFE coated glass cloth and how to use it for your project'', [pdf] Architen Landrell Associates Limited, Available from:
*[http://www.architen.com/technical/articles/using-ptfe-glass-cloth http://www.architen.com/technical/articles/using-ptfe-glass-cloth] [Accessed 14 January 2014].
*Birdair Inc. (2011) ''Performance Characteristics: Tensotherm ™'', [pdf] Amherst, NY, Birdair Inc., Available from:
*[http://www.taiyo-europe.com/downloads/Tensotherm_PerfCharac.pdf http://www.taiyo-europe.com/downloads/Tensotherm_PerfCharac.pdf] [Accessed 14 January 2014].
*Devulder, T., Wilson, R. and Chilton, J.C. (2007) ''The thermal behaviour of buildings incorporating single skin tensile membrane structures'', Oxford University Press, International Journal of Low Carbon Technologies, 2 (2), 195-213.
*Evans, M. (1980) ''Housing, Climate and Comfort'', London, The Architectural Press, 81.
*Harvie, G. (1995) ''An investigation into the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes'', PhD Thesis, Cardiff, Cardiff University of Wales.
*Meyer, F. (2009) ''Low-e coatings: Soft coverings for demanding applications'', Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany, FIS Karlsruhe, BINE-projektinfo 05/09.
*Pause, B. (2008) ''Improving thermal-regulating properties for membrane structures'', Industrial Fabric Structures Association, Fabric Architecture, Available from: [http://fabricarchitecturemag.com/articles/0308_f3_thermal.html http://fabricarchitecturemag.com/articles/0308_f3_thermal.html] [Accessed 14 January 2014].
*Poirazis, H., Kragh, M., and Hogg, C. (2009) ''Energy modelling of ETFE membranes in building applications'', Eleventh International IBPSA Conference, Glasgow, Scotland.
*Semper, G. (1979) ''The Four Elements of Architecture and other Writings'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 254.
*Solenberger, F.R. (1979) ''Thermal Gain of Architectural Fabrics'', Internal report to P. Biesert, E.I. Du Pont De Nemours & Company, November 14, (Unpublished).
*Zhai, Z., Chen, Q., Haves, P. and Klems, J.H. (2002) ''On approaches to couple energy simulation and computational fluid dynamics programs'', Building and Environment, 37, 857-864.

[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Theory]]

Computational fluid dynamics for buildings

2014-06-09T06:56:38Z

Gregor Harvie:

[[File:CFD.jpg|RTENOTITLE]]Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a technique used to modelling the behaviour of fluids. In building design it can be used to model the movement and temperature of air within spaces.

This is important as it allows designers to investigate the temperature distribution and air movement within buildings before they are built, allowing them to test options and select the most effective solutions.

CFD can be a useful tool for modelling:
*The comfort of occupants.
*The distribution of environmental conditions within a space.
*The effectiveness of building services (such as the positioning of air inlets and extracts or radiators).
*The consequences of fire (such as the spread of heat and smoke).
*The effectiveness of natural ventilation (such as the stack effect)
*The build up of heat in specialist spaces such as server rooms.
*The positioning of sensors. For example in a tall space, the temperature at the top might be very different to the temperature at the bottom. This can be important when positioning temperature sensors that feed back to the building management system. Otherwise, heating and cooling might be operating unnecessarily.
*The impact of a new building on air movement around a site.

Simulations might be run for a number of different scenarios, testing the behaviour of a space under different levels of occupancy, different climatic conditions, in different modes of building services operation or, with different openings between spaces and so on. This can build up an overall picture of how a building is likely to behave under normal operating conditions as well as during unusual or extreme conditions.

CFD works by dividing a space into a grid containing a large number of 'cells'. The grid of cells is surrounded by boundaries that simulate the surfaces and openings that enclose the space. The temperature of the boundaries, the air movement at openings, and the air temperature within the cells is then set to a starting condition which it is hoped is close to those that might be expected to be found within the space. This might include a boundary model that predicts boundary conditions, based on climatic and materials data. The closer this starting condition is to the final position predicted by the model, the faster the model will run.

The software will then simulate the flow of air from each cell to those surrounding it, and the exchange of heat between the boundary surfaces and the cells adjacent to them. After a series of iterations, the model will come to a steady state that represents the actual air velocities and distribution of temperatures expected to be found within the space.

Increasingly, CFD software is able to interact with other models, such as:
*Boundary models.
*Climatic models.
*Building services models.
*Energy consumption and CO2 generation models.
*Radiant models.
*Daylighting and lighting models.
*CAD and BIM software.

CFD can be a very useful tool in the right hands, and output graphics are very persuasive and seductive. However results are highly dependent on the knowledge of the person setting up the model and interpreting the results. This is an increasing concern as CFD software becomes more straight-forward to use and so is more easily operated by people with little understanding of the mathematical model that underpins it.

If the input information is wrong, the output information will be as well.CFD is no substitute for common sense.

An important consideration in developing a CFD model is the generation of the grid of cells. The greater the number of cells, the more accurate the simulation will be, but the longer the model will take to run. In some parts of a space, using a large cell size may not have a significant impact on the results, however in sensitive areas, for example around complex boundaries or where there might be a large temperature difference between a boundary surface and the air next to it, it is important that cells are as small as is computationally practical. For example a very small cell size (a fine grid mesh) is necessary to properly simulate the downdraft that can be experienced next to a cold window. If such a downdraft is not simulated, the heat exchange between the window and the space it encloses will be underestimated.

In spaces where the surfaces enclosing the space are non-cartesian (ie they are curved, or at an angle rather than purely horizontal or vertical) it is important that the grid is body-fitted (ie that it follows the contours of the surfaces) rather than cartesian (in a series of steps), otherwise air velocity at the surface will be underestimated and so heat transfer between the space and its enclosing surfaces will be underestimated. This is particularly important where there is a large temperature difference between the surface and the air adjacent to it.

Where CFD is being used to predict user comfort within a space, it is important that both air temperature and radiant temperature are considered. CFD in itself only models air temperature and air velocity, however, around half of the contribution to our thermal comfort within buildings is dependent on radiant heat transfer, ie the temperature of the surfaces around us. Some CFD software is able to include radiant influences on the temperatures that will be felt by occupants.

[[File:Olympic stadium wind analysis.jpg|417x190px|alt=Olympic stadium wind analysis.jpg]]

Analysis of the influence of a roof on track level wind speeds for the London 2012 Olympic Stadium.

----

--[[User:Gregor Harvie|Gregor Harvie]] 07:56, 9 June 2014 (BST)

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Dynamic thermal modelling of closed loop geothermal heat pump systems.
*Energy targets.
*Performance in use.
*Post occupancy evaluation.
*Sustainability.
*The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes.
*Thermal comfort.
*U-values.

=== External references ===
*[http://www.gregorharvie.com/thesis/index.htm An Investigation into the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes], Gregor Harvie, 1996.
*[http://www.ibpsa.org/proceedings/BS2003/BS03_0371_378.pdf Performance evaluation of CFD codes in building energy and environmental analysis], Pedro Dinis Gaspar, Rui F. Barroca and R.A. Pitarma, 2003
*[http://www.cfd-online.com/ CFD online].
*[http://www.stanford.edu/group/narratives/classes/08-09/CEE215/ReferenceLibrary/CFD/CFD%20for%20Sustainable%20Design.pdf Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Building Design: Aspects and Trends], Zhiqiang Zhai, 2006.

[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Design]]
[[Category:Theory]]

The development of structural membranes

2014-06-09T06:55:51Z

Gregor Harvie:

The earliest fabrics used to provide shelter were formed by simple membranes extracted from animals or vegetables. Later these membranes were cut into strips and interlaced to form larger, more practical textiles, and eventually these strips were twisted into circular sections allowing the manufacture of flexible, continuos fibres with enhanced strength.

The black tent was most commonly made of loose woven, spun goats hair, but regional variations used yak hair, sheep wool, camel hair, and even reed mats twined with wool. Other early membranes were constructed from cured leather, deer skin, seal skin, and even tree bark. Linen was used for the Roman velum and the first circus tents, however cotton was the first material to possess any significant structural strength.

Frei Otto's first structures were fabricated from the traditional cotton canvas with which his partner Peter Stromeyer was accustomed. These early canvas fabrics however were relatively weak and ineffective. Performance improved with the introduction of heavy cotton canvas, but its limited strength and poor UV resistance, meant that canvas structures had a maximum span of just 25m and were only expected to last for around three years.

Exhaustive research into membrane combinations during the fifties and sixties resulted in experimentation with a wide range of high performance materials intended to replace cotton. Possible alternatives included; coated glass fibre, steel meshes, aluminium meshes, acrylic sheets, coated synthetic fabrics, foam insulated fabrics, wire reinforced resins and so on. Otto also experimented with PVC coated polyester and nylon, although these early varieties had rather unpredictable properties.

Otto's Interbau Building at the City of Tomorrow exhibition in Berlin (1957) was his first attempt to use a non cotton based fabric on a real project. The building consisted of a highly elastic, flat, polyurethane membrane which was distorted into a doubly curved three dimensional form by an internal frame. Unfortunately this experimental form of polyurethane deteriorated very quickly, possibly due to an incorrect mix of the fibre additive titanium oxide, and had to be replaced by a heavy cotton fabric.

More complex membrane combinations were also tested. The Dortmund Ice rink (1963) for example was fabricated from a continuous filament polyester, coated with a rolled on aluminium foil to protect against UV degradation, which was in turn protected against corrosion with a polyacrylonitrile topcoat. This had a predicted life of 20 years but was opaque and cost about 4 times as much as canvas.

Many membrane combinations were experimented with during this period, but research gradually converged on a small number of practicable alternatives. The German Pavilion at Expo '67 in Montreal was one of the first buildings to use a PVC coated polyester membrane. It was dismantled after six years and showed little sign of degradation. Within a relatively short period of time PVC coated polyester and its sister membrane PVC coated nylon (used for air houses due to its high elasticity) became the industry standards.

As a demand for more permanent fabric structures emerged, so better performing alternatives to PVC coated polyester and nylon were sought. In 1972 PTFE coated glass fabrics were introduced following their development by NASA for the manufacture of space suits. PTFE coated glass is relatively inelastic, and so requires more accurate patterning than the more accommodating polyester or nylon based fabrics. PTFE coated glass is also more expensive, but tends to be longer life. The first application of PTFE coated glass was in the La Verne College Student Centre, in California (1973). In 1993, twenty years later, the original membrane was still in place, and was still capable of withstanding around 75% of its original design load.

More recently, high performance materials such as silicone coated glass have been developed. Whereas Teflon is translucent, silicone is transparent[7], and silicone coated glass has an anticipated life of up to 50 years. A combination of high cost, industry scepticism and early performance problems however, have meant that silicone coated fabrics have only been used to a limited extent so far. Other developments have included woven PTFE fibre (hydrophobic, microporous, and extremely durable), laminated open weave grids, foils, multiple membranes and more theoretical active membranes such as those developed by Graham Stevens and Nickolaus Laing. Alternatives have also been sought to PVC which has been criticised by some environmental groups. However, alternatives such as polyolefin coated polyester shave struggled with fire resistance issues, and fire retardants added to the coating have resulted in reduced adhesion at seams.

A more recent development involves the application of a further topcoat to the outside surface of the membrane which mimics the performance of PTFE. It is generally claimed that this topcoat makes membranes entirely self cleaning.

A huge range of membrane types have been made available over the last twenty years as manufacturers have become increasingly able to vary the way in which they select and combine the constituents of their products. A variety of base fabrics, coatings, topcoats, and colours have emerged resulting in a wide range of membrane strengths and translucencies.

[[File:Earthday1.JPG|RTENOTITLE]]Millennium Dome, London. A double-layer PTFE coated glass fabric structure.

----

--[[User:Gregor Harvie|Gregor Harvie]] 07:55, 9 June 2014 (BST)

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*ETFE.
*The history of fabric structures.
*The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes.

=== External references ===
*Faegre, T; Tents: Architecture of the Nomads, John Murray (Publishers) Ltd, London, 1979, P130.
*Vinzenzi, S; "Membrane Structures. The Design Process." ''RIBA Journal'', March, 1985, P46.
*Roland, C; ''Frei Otto: Structures'', Longman Group Ltd, London, 1970, P66.
*ibid. Roland, C; ''Frei Otto: Structures'', P66.
*Happold, T, "Chariots of Fire." ''Patterns'', No.5, May 1989, P3.
*The Institute for Lightweight Structures; "Tents", IL16, October, 1976, P135.
*Cook, J; "Twenty Years and Counting." ''Fabrics and Architecture'', V5 No. 4, July / August 1993, P18.
*Davies, C, "Fabric Structures", ''RIBA Journal'', October 1985, P59- 63.
*Cowell, R; Forster, B; Jofeh, C; Law, M; "Lightweight Structures." ''Building'', 10/6/1983, P28.
*Bubner, Prof. E; "Roofing Over Large Areas with Technical Membranes." Proceedings of the International Techtextil Symposium, 4:13, 1993, P2.

[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Products_/_components]]

The thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membranes

2014-05-22T04:36:17Z

Gregor Harvie:

A thesis submitted to the University of Wales for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor by GREGOR HARVIE. Welsh School of Architecture, University of Wales College of Cardiff, March 1996.

The findings in brief:
*Boundary models and CFD models need to be dynamically linked to properly represent the impact of thin boundaries whose temperatures can change very rapidly and very significantly (up to 15°c in a minute simply as a result of the sun coming out).
*Analysis of comfort must include radiant temperatures as well as air temperatures, particularly in spaces where there is a significant difference in temperature between the air in the space and the surfaces enclosing it, or where solar radiation penetrates the space.
*The difference in temperature between thin boundaries and the air they enclose, combined with smooth surface geometry results in a higher surface air velocity than is found in conventional spaces. This is similar to the downdraft generated by a cold window.
*Where there is likely to be a significant difference in temperature between a boundary and the air adjacent to it, a very small cell size (40mm or less) is required to properly simulate the increased surface air velocity at that surface and so the increased surface heat transfer. Failure to properly simulate this will result in an underestimation of the contribution the boundary makes to internal conditions.
*In non-cartesian spaces (ie where surfaces are not all vertical or horizontal, but may be inclined or curved) it is necessary to use a body-fitted cell grid (i.e. one in which the grid is distorted to follow the contours of the surface) to allow a small enough cell size adjacent to boundaries to properly simulate the flow of air across those boundaries. If a cartesian grid is used, a refined grid is required throughout the space just to simulate the flow of air across the non-cartesian boundaries and this is computationally impractical.

----

[[File:CFD.jpg|RTENOTITLE]]This thesis describes a programme of research the aim of which was to investigate the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by fabric membrane envelopes.

Initial analysis suggested that a fabric membrane can affect conditions within a space enclosed by it as a result of its internal surface temperature and the amount of radiation it directs into that space. In order to investigate these parameters, a test cell was constructed which allowed the thermal behaviour of a range of fabric membranes to be monitored.

The monitored data revealed that the thermal behaviour of fabric membranes is entirely dictated by their angular thermal optical properties. These properties were measured and a dynamic spread sheet model was developed which was able to simulate the monitored behaviour fairly accurately.

In order to investigate the thermal behaviour of spaces enclosed by such membranes, conditions within four existing fabric roofed buildings were monitored. The monitored data revealed that comfort temperatures could vary significantly from place to place within such spaces. These variations were produced by both the stratification of internal air temperatures and differences in internal radiant temperatures.

An attempt was made to simulate the behaviour of the buildings monitored, using a general applications CFD code in conjunction with information generated by the spread sheet model. Whilst some behaviour patterns could be simulated accurately using this approach, it was apparent that the simplification of boundary conditions in the CFD code meant it was unable to accurately predict strong internal stratification.

It was proposed that improving the reliability of this process would require the development of a specialist CFD model able to dynamically simulate both the behaviour of the fabric enclosure and the internal space.

----
*[[File:Contents.pdf|File:Contents.pdf|alt=File:Contents.pdf]]. Contents.
*[[File:Chapter 1.pdf|File:Chapter_1.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_1.pdf]]. Introduction.
*[[File:Chapter 2.pdf|File:Chapter_2.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_2.pdf]]. Subject Background.
*[[File:Chapter 3.pdf|File:Chapter_3.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_3.pdf]]. The Existing Body of Knowledge.
*[[File:Chapter 4.pdf|File:Chapter_4.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_4.pdf]]. Methodology.
*[[File:Chapter 5.pdf|File:Chapter_5.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_5.pdf]]. Monitoring the Thermal Behaviour of Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 6.pdf|File:Chapter_6.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_6.pdf]]. Measuring the Thermal Properties of Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 7.pdf|File:Chapter_7.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_7.pdf]]. Modelling the Thermal Behaviour of Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 8.pdf|File:Chapter_8.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_8.pdf]]. Monitoring the Thermal Behaviour of Spaces Enclosed by Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 9.pdf|File:Chapter_9.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_9.pdf]]. Modelling the Thermal Behaviour of Spaces Enclosed by Fabric Membranes.
*[[File:Chapter 10.pdf|File:Chapter_10.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_10.pdf]]. Discussion.
*[[File:Chapter 11.pdf|File:Chapter_11.pdf|alt=File:Chapter_11.pdf]]. Conclusions.
*[[File:Appendices.pdf|File:Appendices.pdf|alt=File:Appendices.pdf]]. Appendices.

----

[[File:Thermal comfort in a fabric structure.jpg|710x425px|alt=Thermal comfort in a fabric structure.jpg]]

--[[User:Gregor Harvie|Gregor Harvie]] 05:36, 22 May 2014 (BST)

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Computational Fluid Dynamics.
*ETFE.
*Sustainability.
*The history of fabric structures.
*Thermal comfort.
*Transparent insulation materials.
*U values.

[[Category:Products_/_components]]

Comparison of work stages

2014-02-24T14:32:07Z

Gregor Harvie: Redirected page to RIBA plan of work v project plans v OGC gateways

#redirect:[[RIBA_plan_of_work_v_project_plans_v_OGC_gateways|RIBA_plan_of_work_v_project_plans_v_OGC_gateways]]

Performance specified work in construction contracts

2014-02-24T14:25:57Z

Gregor Harvie: Redirected page to Performance specification

#redirect:[[Performance_specification|Performance_specification]]

Village green registration

2014-02-24T13:18:33Z

Gregor Harvie:

Town and village greens are areas of land where local people regularly indulge in sports and pastimes such as; organised or ad-hoc games, picnics, fetes and similar activities. ‘Green’ status is intended to protect such land from development. Under section 15(1) of the [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/26/contents Commons Act 2006], anyone can register land as a green if it has been used by local people for lawful sports and pastimes without permission, force or secrecy for at least 20 years.

However, in 2010, the Penfold Review (Review of non-planning consents) suggested that applications to register greens were sometimes made solely to frustrate developments that had already received planning permission. As a consequence, a number of reforms were made.

In April 2013, The Growth and Infrastructure Act was introduced, one of the effects of which was to prevent the improper registration of greens from stopping development by closing a loophole that made it possible to submit a green application on land which had already been designated for development.

In October 2013 the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) acknowledged that “loopholes in the system have increasingly been abused by people looking to stop local development… As well as having a negative effect on the rural economy and reducing the value of land – often by over 90 per cent – this reduces the availability of rural homes, facilities and hospitals across the country...” (Ref [https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-measures-to-increase-rural-home-building DEFRA]).

From October 2013 therefore, applications to register greens have to be made within a year of the land’s use, rather than two.

In addition, landowners will be able to protect their land from registration through new landowner statements (see [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/1774/introduction/made The Commons (Registration of Town or Village Greens) and Dedicated Highways (Landowner Statements and Declarations) (England) Regulations 2013]). This enables landowners to deposit a statement and map with the local planning authority (and displaying it on site for six weeks), preventing any new entitlement to green registration arising. Landowner statements have to be renewed every 20 years.

In December 2013, the government announced further plans to terminate the right to make a town or village green application two years from the time a draft local plan is published for consultation (See Consultation on registration of new town or village greens: proposed amendments to Schedule 1A (Exclusion of Right under section 15) to the Commons Act 2006: [https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/registration-of-new-town-or-village-greens-proposed-amendments-to-the-commons-act-2006 summary of responses and government response]).

In February 2014, DEFRA issued [https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/281213/commonland-cra-guide.pdf Guidance to Commons Registration Authorities in England], confirming the status and procedures for landowner statements and introducing 14 new trigger events that prevent registration. Trigger events include events such as; publication or adoption of a draft local or nieghbourhood plan which identifies the land for potential development; and applications for Nationally Significant Infrastructure projects.

----

NB DEFRA suggest that an alternative means of protecting land is through Local Green Space designation which empowers local communities to protect green spaces of local importance for reasons including setting and nature conservation. Local communities will be able to identify green spaces through their local and neighbourhood plans, which will then receive protection equivalent to green belt land. The National Planning Policy Framework suggests that designation as Local Green Space should only be used:
*'where the green space is in reasonably close proximity to the community it serves;
*where the green area is demonstrably special to a local community and holds a particular local significance, for example because of its beauty, historic significance, recreational value (including as a playing field), tranquillity or richness of its wildlife;
*and where the green area concerned is local in character and is not an extensive tract of land.'

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Brownfield land. 
*Green belt.
*Growth and Infrastructure Act.
*Local green space.
*National Planning Policy Framework.
*Neighbourhood planning.
*Penfold Review.
*Planning permission.

=== External references ===
*[https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/218584/village-green-1993.pdf Database of registered town or village greens in England].
*DEFRA [https://www.gov.uk/town-and-village-greens-how-to-register Town and village greens: how to register].
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/26/contents Commons Act 2006].
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/1774/introduction/made The Commons (Registration of Town or Village Greens) and Dedicated Highways (Landowner Statements and Declarations) (England) Regulations 2013].

[[Category:Other_legislation]]
[[Category:Planning_permission]]
[[Category:Property_law]]

Self build initiative

2014-02-24T13:02:19Z

Gregor Harvie:

The self build initiative is an attempt by the government to increase the number of new homes that are self built in the UK.

Self build is an alternative to the traditional model in the UK, where houses are built speculatively by a developer, and then people buy them and move in. Self build does not necessarily mean that the physical construction is undertaken by the home owner, but rather that they instigate the development of the home, whether by purchasing a kit house, employing a design and build contractor, employing consultants (such as an architect) and a contractor, or managing the entire process and ordering all the goods and services required themselves.

At the moment, self building only accounts for around 10% of new homes built every year, that amounts to around 15,000 to 20,000 homes. This compares very unfavourably with other EU countries. In Austria for example, more than 80% of new homes are self built.

A 2011 YouGov poll commissioned by the [http://www.bsa.org.uk/ Building Societies Association] suggested that 1 in 2 people would consider building their own home if they felt that they could (ref [http://www.communities.gov.uk/publications/housing/housingstrategy2011 Laying the Foundations: A Housing Strategy for England]).

The government proposes that self building can result in properties that are higher quality, greener and cheaper. They state that '...The average cost of a ready-made home is now more than £232,000, but a budget of £150,000 is usually adequate to build a three to four-bedroom house..'

It is also considered that self building might offer part of the solution to Britain’s housing shortfall which some estimates suggest will reach 750,000 homes by 2025.

The governments stated aim is to double the size of the UK self-build sector. They propose to facilitate this by:
*Increasing the availability of mortgages for self builders. The government suggests that the number of mortgages available to self-builders will rise by 141%.
*Reducing red tape that might put people off self building (for example by the introduction of the National Planning Policy Framework and neighbourhood planning).
*Creating the [http://www.selfbuildportal.org.uk/ self build portal]. This provides step-by-step guidance about how to set up and run a self build project, including information about the average cost of land and the cost of building in different parts of the country.
*Providing short-term financing to help self build groups to part fund land acquisition and preliminary development costs.
*Increasing the availability of land for self builders. For example through the release of public land exclusively to self builders. The Government has committed to releasing public sector land with the capacity for up to 100,000 new homes. Lists of public land that government departments are selling are available on the [http://www.homesandcommunities.co.uk/ourwork/land-and-regeneration Homes and Communities Agency] website. In addition, the National Planning Policy Framework gives local authorities a duty to assess local demand in their area for all types of housing, including people wishing to build their own homes. 
*Since 24 February 2014, homes that are owner-occupied and built or commissioned by individuals, families or groups of individuals for their own use are exempt from the levy (ref Gov.uk [https://www.gov.uk/government/news/levy-cuts-to-help-hard-working-people-build-their-own-home Levy cuts to help hard-working people build their own home]).

There remain concerns about whether self builders will be able to navigate their way through the legal and legislative complexities of building design and development such as; insurance, planning permission, building regulations, restrictive covenants, health and safety, mortgages and so on. In addition questions remain about how planning obligations (section 106 agreements) should be applied to self builders.

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Building regulations.
*Community infrastructure levy.
*Community right to build.
*Localism Act.
*National Planning Policy Framework.
*Neighbourhood development order
*Neighbourhood planning.
*Planning obligations.
*Planning permission.
*Restrictive covenants.
*Right to contest.
*Statutory permissions.

=== External references ===
*[http://www.selfbuildportal.org.uk/ Self build portal].
*[http://www.self-build.co.uk Build It + Home Improvement].
*[http://www.homebuilding.co.uk Homebuilding and Renovating].
*[http://www.nasba.org.uk National Self Build Association].
*[http://www.communities.gov.uk/publications/housing/housingstrategy2011 Laying the Foundations: A Housing Strategy for England] (published in November 2011).
*Self build blog: [http://www.houseplanninghelp.com House Planning Help].
*Homes and Communities Agency: [http://www.homesandcommunities.co.uk/ourwork/land-and-regeneration Land and development opportunities].

[[Category:Other_legislation]]
[[Category:Client_procedures]]
[[Category:Property_development]]
[[Category:Cost_/_business_planning]]

Community infrastructure levy CIL

2014-02-24T13:00:59Z

Gregor Harvie:

= Introduction =

Section 206 of [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/29/contents the Planning Act 2008] gives ‘charging authorities’ (generally the local planning authority) the power to charge the community infrastructure levy (CIL). It is a charge that local authorities can choose to impose on new developments to fund local infrastructure. This could include infrastructure such as:
*Transport schemes.
*Flood defences.
*Schools.
*Hospitals.
*Green spaces.
*Leisure centres.

Charging authorities must:
*''prepare and publish a document known as the “charging schedule” which will set out the rates of Community Infrastructure Levy which will apply in the authority’s area. ''
*''apply the levy revenue it receives to funding the provision, improvement, replacement, operation or maintenance of infrastructure to support the development of its area, and; ''
*''report to the local community on the amount of levy revenue collected, spent and retained each year. ''

ref Department for Communities and Local Government (CLG): [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/community-infrastructure-levy-guidance Community Infrastructure Levy guidance] 14 December 2012.

The levy is charged by square metre of floor space of a development. It can be charged on any new dwelling or any other development that has 100 square metres or more gross internal floor space. The floor space of existing buildings that are going to be demolished can be deducted, as can the development of the interior of existing buildings. Charities and social housing schemes may be exempt from the levy. Once planning permission is granted, collecting authorities will issue applicants with a levy liability notice which becomes due when development commences.

NB since 24 February 2014, homes that are owner-occupied and built or commissioned by individuals, families or groups of individuals for their own use are exempt from the levy (ref Gov.uk [https://www.gov.uk/government/news/levy-cuts-to-help-hard-working-people-build-their-own-home Levy cuts to help hard-working people build their own home]).

= Relationship between the levy and planning obligations. =

Planning obligations (also known as Section 106 Agreements) are obligations attached to land that is the subject of a planning permission. Planning obligations are used to mitigate or compensate for the negative impacts of a development or to prescribe the nature of a development. They are intended to make acceptable developments which would otherwise be unacceptable.

In 2010 measures within the [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492390/contents Community Infrastructure Levy Regulations] came into force clarifying the relationship between planning obligations and the community infrastructure levy and restricting the use of planning obligations.

Planning obligations must meet three new statutory tests from 6 April 2010:
#They must be necessary to make the development acceptable.
#They must be directly related to the development.
#They must be in scale to the development.

In December 2012, CLG published [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/community-infrastructure-levy-guidance Community Infrastructure Levy guidance]. Paragraphs 84 – 91 set out in detail the relationship between the levy and planning obligations. They suggest that when the levy is introduced, charging authorities should scale back Section 106 requirements ‘to those matters that are directly related to a specific site, and are not set out in a regulation 123 list'. A regulation 123 list sets out those projects or types of infrastructure that a charging authority intends to fund through they levy.

The guidance is intended to ensure that there is transparency about what the charging authority intends to fund through the levy and where Section 106 contributions may continue to be sought. This should ensure that there is no ‘double dipping’, where developers are asked to pay twice for infrastructure. Once an authority has introduced the levy in its local area, it must not use obligations to pay for infrastructure they intend to fund via the levy.

Planning obligations will no longer be the basis for a tariff. Once an authority introduces the levy in their area, it can no longer pool more than five contributions for infrastructure capable of being funded by the levy.

NB [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/982/contents/made The Community Infrastructure Levy (Amendment) Regulations 2013] have now been amended several times, and further changes and clarifications are expected - particularly in relation to planning obligations.

= Planning conditions =

The National Planning Policy Framework states that when local authorities are deciding whether to impose planning conditions, they should consider the combined effect that those conditions and the levy will have on the proposed development.

= Neighbourhood funding element =

In January 2013, planning minister Nick Boles announced that where there is a neighbourhood plan in place that has been accepted in a referendum, communities (such as town or parish councils) will be given 25% of the levy when planning permission for a development is approved. This money will be available to spend on infrastructure from an approved list, including improvements such as ‘..to re-roof a village hall, refurbish a municipal pool or take over a community pub’.

Where there is no neighbourhood plan in place, communities will receive 15% of the levy, although this is capped at £100 per household per year

The funding will be passed to the community group in accordance with a timetable agreed with the local planning authority. The community group will be expected to work with the local planning authority in deciding how it should be spent. Where there is no town or parish council, the local planning authority will retain the funds and spend them ‘…in accordance with the wishes of the community’.

Government officials have suggested that awards to local communities could be between £236,500 and £652,500 depending on the location and nature of the development, although it is not clear how these figures have been calculated.

The proposals were announced alongside a warning that Britain needs to build 270,000 homes a year. This is double the number that was built each year between 2000 and 2010.

NB The neighbourhood funding element does not apply in Wales. Instead, the charging authority passes 15% of the levy funds to community councils.

= Reform =

Following a [https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/community-infrastructure-levy-further-reforms consultation in 2013], the government announced that it would introduce a number of reforms to the Community Infrastructure Levy. These include:
*Local authorities will be required to consider the potential effects of infrastructure funding on the viability of new developments.
*Local authorities will be able to set different levels of tax depending on the size of a development.
*There will be an exemption for residential extensions and annexes.
*Extending the vacancy test to cover buildings that have been in use for a continuous period of six months in the last three years.
*The date from which pooling restrictions on Section 106 agreements apply has been changed to April 2015.

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Community right to bid.
*Community right to build.
*Detailed planning permission.
*Localism act.
*National Planning Policy Framework.
*Neighbourhood development order.
*Neighbourhood planning.
*Outline planning permission.
*Planning permission.
*Planning appeal.
*Planning fees.
*Planning conditions.
*Planning obligations.
*Section 38 agreement. 
*Section 106 agreement.
*Section 278 agreement.
*Self-build initiative.

== External links ==
*Gov.uk [https://www.gov.uk/government/news/levy-cuts-to-help-hard-working-people-build-their-own-home Levy cuts to help hard-working people build their own home]. 24 February 2014.
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/applications/howtoapply/whattosubmit/cil Planning portal: About the Community Infrastructure Levy].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/cil_summary.pdf Planning portal: Community Infrastructure Levy Summary].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/cil_overview.pdf Planning portal: Community Infrastructure Levy Overview].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/applications/decisionmaking/conditionsandobligations Planning portal: Guidance on conditions and obligations].
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492390/contents Community infrastructure levy regulations in full].
*[http://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/CIL-draft-charging-schedule-Aug-2011.pdf Draft proposal for a mayoral community infrastructure levy for London].
*Department for Communities and Local Government (CLG): [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/community-infrastructure-levy-guidance Community Infrastructure Levy guidance] 14 December 2012.
*CLG: [https://www.gov.uk/government/news/communities-to-receive-cash-boost-for-choosing-development Communities to receive cash boost for choosing development]. January 2013.
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/29/contents The Planning Act 2008]
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/982/contents/made The Community Infrastructure Levy (Amendment) Regulations 2013].
*The [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492390/contents Community Infrastructure Levy Regulations] (2010)

[[Category:Other_legislation]]
[[Category:Planning_permission]]
[[Category:Property_development]]
[[Category:Cost_/_business_planning]]

Community infrastructure levy CIL

2014-02-24T13:00:00Z

Gregor Harvie:

= Introduction =

Section 206 of [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/29/contents the Planning Act 2008] gives ‘charging authorities’ (generally the local planning authority) the power to charge the community infrastructure levy (CIL). It is a charge that local authorities can choose to impose on new developments to fund local infrastructure. This could include infrastructure such as:
*Transport schemes.
*Flood defences.
*Schools.
*Hospitals.
*Green spaces.
*Leisure centres.

Charging authorities must:
*''prepare and publish a document known as the “charging schedule” which will set out the rates of Community Infrastructure Levy which will apply in the authority’s area. ''
*''apply the levy revenue it receives to funding the provision, improvement, replacement, operation or maintenance of infrastructure to support the development of its area, and; ''
*''report to the local community on the amount of levy revenue collected, spent and retained each year. ''

ref Department for Communities and Local Government (CLG): [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/community-infrastructure-levy-guidance Community Infrastructure Levy guidance] 14 December 2012.

The levy is charged by square metre of floor space of a development. It can be charged on any new dwelling or any other development that has 100 square metres or more gross internal floor space. The floor space of existing buildings that are going to be demolished can be deducted, as can the development of the interior of existing buildings. Charities and social housing schemes may be exempt from the levy. Once planning permission is granted, collecting authorities will issue applicants with a levy liability notice which becomes due when development commences.

NB since 24 February 2014, homes that are owner-occupied and built or commissioned by individuals, families or groups of individuals for their own use are exempt from the levy (ref Gov.uk [https://www.gov.uk/government/news/levy-cuts-to-help-hard-working-people-build-their-own-home Levy cuts to help hard-working people build their own home]).

= Relationship between the levy and planning obligations. =

Planning obligations (also known as Section 106 Agreements) are obligations attached to land that is the subject of a planning permission. Planning obligations are used to mitigate or compensate for the negative impacts of a development or to prescribe the nature of a development. They are intended to make acceptable developments which would otherwise be unacceptable.

In 2010 measures within the [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492390/contents Community Infrastructure Levy Regulations] came into force clarifying the relationship between planning obligations and the community infrastructure levy and restricting the use of planning obligations.

Planning obligations must meet three new statutory tests from 6 April 2010:
#They must be necessary to make the development acceptable.
#They must be directly related to the development.
#They must be in scale to the development.

In December 2012, CLG published [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/community-infrastructure-levy-guidance Community Infrastructure Levy guidance]. Paragraphs 84 – 91 set out in detail the relationship between the levy and planning obligations. They suggest that when the levy is introduced, charging authorities should scale back Section 106 requirements ‘to those matters that are directly related to a specific site, and are not set out in a regulation 123 list'. A regulation 123 list sets out those projects or types of infrastructure that a charging authority intends to fund through they levy.

The guidance is intended to ensure that there is transparency about what the charging authority intends to fund through the levy and where Section 106 contributions may continue to be sought. This should ensure that there is no ‘double dipping’, where developers are asked to pay twice for infrastructure. Once an authority has introduced the levy in its local area, it must not use obligations to pay for infrastructure they intend to fund via the levy.

Planning obligations will no longer be the basis for a tariff. Once an authority introduces the levy in their area, it can no longer pool more than five contributions for infrastructure capable of being funded by the levy.

NB [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/982/contents/made The Community Infrastructure Levy (Amendment) Regulations 2013] have now been amended several times, and further changes and clarifications are expected - particularly in relation to planning obligations.

= Planning conditions =

The National Planning Policy Framework states that when local authorities are deciding whether to impose planning conditions, they should consider the combined effect that those conditions and the levy will have on the proposed development.

= Neighbourhood funding element =

In January 2013, planning minister Nick Boles announced that where there is a neighbourhood plan in place that has been accepted in a referendum, communities (such as town or parish councils) will be given 25% of the levy when planning permission for a development is approved. This money will be available to spend on infrastructure from an approved list, including improvements such as ‘..to re-roof a village hall, refurbish a municipal pool or take over a community pub’.

Where there is no neighbourhood plan in place, communities will receive 15% of the levy, although this is capped at £100 per household per year

The funding will be passed to the community group in accordance with a timetable agreed with the local planning authority. The community group will be expected to work with the local planning authority in deciding how it should be spent. Where there is no town or parish council, the local planning authority will retain the funds and spend them ‘…in accordance with the wishes of the community’.

Government officials have suggested that awards to local communities could be between £236,500 and £652,500 depending on the location and nature of the development, although it is not clear how these figures have been calculated.

The proposals were announced alongside a warning that Britain needs to build 270,000 homes a year. This is double the number that was built each year between 2000 and 2010.

NB The neighbourhood funding element does not apply in Wales. Instead, the charging authority passes 15% of the levy funds to community councils.

= Reform =

Following a [https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/community-infrastructure-levy-further-reforms consultation in 2013], the government announced that it would introduce a number of reforms to the Community Infrastructure Levy. These include:
*Local authorities will be required to consider the potential effects of infrastructure funding on the viability of new developments.
*Local authorities will be able to set different levels of tax depending on the size of a development.
*There will be an exemption for residential extensions and annexes.
*Extending the vacancy test to cover buildings that have been in use for a continuous period of six months in the last three years.
*The date from which pooling restrictions on Section 106 agreements apply has been changed to April 2015.

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Community right to bid.
*Community right to build.
*Detailed planning permission.
*Localism act.
*National Planning Policy Framework.
*Neighbourhood development order.
*Neighbourhood planning.
*Outline planning permission.
*Planning permission.
*Planning appeal.
*Planning fees.
*Planning conditions.
*Planning obligations.
*Section 38 agreement. 
*Section 106 agreement.
*Section 278 agreement.

== External links ==
*
Gov.uk [https://www.gov.uk/government/news/levy-cuts-to-help-hard-working-people-build-their-own-home Levy cuts to help hard-working people build their own home]. 24 February 2014.
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/applications/howtoapply/whattosubmit/cil Planning portal: About the Community Infrastructure Levy].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/cil_summary.pdf Planning portal: Community Infrastructure Levy Summary].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/cil_overview.pdf Planning portal: Community Infrastructure Levy Overview].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/applications/decisionmaking/conditionsandobligations Planning portal: Guidance on conditions and obligations].
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492390/contents Community infrastructure levy regulations in full].
*[http://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/CIL-draft-charging-schedule-Aug-2011.pdf Draft proposal for a mayoral community infrastructure levy for London].
*Department for Communities and Local Government (CLG): [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/community-infrastructure-levy-guidance Community Infrastructure Levy guidance] 14 December 2012.
*CLG: [https://www.gov.uk/government/news/communities-to-receive-cash-boost-for-choosing-development Communities to receive cash boost for choosing development]. January 2013.
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/29/contents The Planning Act 2008]
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/982/contents/made The Community Infrastructure Levy (Amendment) Regulations 2013].
*The [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492390/contents Community Infrastructure Levy Regulations] (2010)

[[Category:Other_legislation]]
[[Category:Planning_permission]]
[[Category:Property_development]]
[[Category:Cost_/_business_planning]]

Community infrastructure levy CIL

2014-02-24T12:35:33Z

Gregor Harvie:

= Introduction =

Section 206 of [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/29/contents the Planning Act 2008] gives ‘charging authorities’ (generally the local planning authority) the power to charge the community infrastructure levy (CIL). It is a charge that local authorities can choose to impose on new developments to fund local infrastructure. This could include infrastructure such as:
*Transport schemes.
*Flood defences.
*Schools.
*Hospitals.
*Green spaces.
*Leisure centres.

Charging authorities must:
*''prepare and publish a document known as the “charging schedule” which will set out the rates of Community Infrastructure Levy which will apply in the authority’s area. ''
*''apply the levy revenue it receives to funding the provision, improvement, replacement, operation or maintenance of infrastructure to support the development of its area, and; ''
*''report to the local community on the amount of levy revenue collected, spent and retained each year. ''

ref Department for Communities and Local Government (CLG): [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/community-infrastructure-levy-guidance Community Infrastructure Levy guidance] 14 December 2012.

The levy is charged by square metre of floor space of a development. It can be charged on any new dwelling or any other development that has 100 square metres or more gross internal floor space. The floor space of existing buildings that are going to be demolished can be deducted, as can the development of the interior of existing buildings. Charities and social housing schemes may be exempt from the levy. Once planning permission is granted, collecting authorities will issue applicants with a levy liability notice which becomes due when development commences.

NB since 24 February 2014, homes that are owner-occupied and built or commissioned by individuals, families or groups of individuals for their own use are exempt from the levy.

= Relationship between the levy and planning obligations. =

Planning obligations (also known as Section 106 Agreements) are obligations attached to land that is the subject of a planning permission. Planning obligations are used to mitigate or compensate for the negative impacts of a development or to prescribe the nature of a development. They are intended to make acceptable developments which would otherwise be unacceptable.

In 2010 measures within the [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492390/contents Community Infrastructure Levy Regulations] came into force clarifying the relationship between planning obligations and the community infrastructure levy and restricting the use of planning obligations.

Planning obligations must meet three new statutory tests from 6 April 2010:
#They must be necessary to make the development acceptable.
#They must be directly related to the development.
#They must be in scale to the development.

In December 2012, CLG published [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/community-infrastructure-levy-guidance Community Infrastructure Levy guidance]. Paragraphs 84 – 91 set out in detail the relationship between the levy and planning obligations. They suggest that when the levy is introduced, charging authorities should scale back Section 106 requirements ‘to those matters that are directly related to a specific site, and are not set out in a regulation 123 list'. A regulation 123 list sets out those projects or types of infrastructure that a charging authority intends to fund through they levy.

The guidance is intended to ensure that there is transparency about what the charging authority intends to fund through the levy and where Section 106 contributions may continue to be sought. This should ensure that there is no ‘double dipping’, where developers are asked to pay twice for infrastructure. Once an authority has introduced the levy in its local area, it must not use obligations to pay for infrastructure they intend to fund via the levy.

Planning obligations will no longer be the basis for a tariff. Once an authority introduces the levy in their area, it can no longer pool more than five contributions for infrastructure capable of being funded by the levy.

NB [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/982/contents/made The Community Infrastructure Levy (Amendment) Regulations 2013] have now been amended several times, and further changes and clarifications are expected - particularly in relation to planning obligations.

= Planning conditions =

The National Planning Policy Framework states that when local authorities are deciding whether to impose planning conditions, they should consider the combined effect that those conditions and the levy will have on the proposed development.

= Neighbourhood funding element =

In January 2013, planning minister Nick Boles announced that where there is a neighbourhood plan in place that has been accepted in a referendum, communities (such as town or parish councils) will be given 25% of the levy when planning permission for a development is approved. This money will be available to spend on infrastructure from an approved list, including improvements such as ‘..to re-roof a village hall, refurbish a municipal pool or take over a community pub’.

Where there is no neighbourhood plan in place, communities will receive 15% of the levy, although this is capped at £100 per household per year

The funding will be passed to the community group in accordance with a timetable agreed with the local planning authority. The community group will be expected to work with the local planning authority in deciding how it should be spent. Where there is no town or parish council, the local planning authority will retain the funds and spend them ‘…in accordance with the wishes of the community’.

Government officials have suggested that awards to local communities could be between £236,500 and £652,500 depending on the location and nature of the development, although it is not clear how these figures have been calculated.

The proposals were announced alongside a warning that Britain needs to build 270,000 homes a year. This is double the number that was built each year between 2000 and 2010.

NB The neighbourhood funding element does not apply in Wales. Instead, the charging authority passes 15% of the levy funds to community councils.

= Reform =

Following a [https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/community-infrastructure-levy-further-reforms consultation in 2013], the government announced that it would introduce a number of reforms to the Community Infrastructure Levy. These include:
*Local authorities will be required to consider the potential effects of infrastructure funding on the viability of new developments.
*Local authorities will be able to set different levels of tax depending on the size of a development.
*There will be an exemption for residential extensions and annexes.
*Extending the vacancy test to cover buildings that have been in use for a continuous period of six months in the last three years.
*The date from which pooling restrictions on Section 106 agreements apply has been changed to April 2015.

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Community right to bid.
*Community right to build.
*Detailed planning permission.
*Localism act.
*National Planning Policy Framework.
*Neighbourhood development order.
*Neighbourhood planning.
*Outline planning permission.
*Planning permission.
*Planning appeal.
*Planning fees.
*Planning conditions.
*Planning obligations.
*Section 38 agreement. 
*Section 106 agreement.
*Section 278 agreement.

== External links ==
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/applications/howtoapply/whattosubmit/cil Planning portal: About the Community Infrastructure Levy].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/cil_summary.pdf Planning portal: Community Infrastructure Levy Summary].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/cil_overview.pdf Planning portal: Community Infrastructure Levy Overview].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/applications/decisionmaking/conditionsandobligations Planning portal: Guidance on conditions and obligations].
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492390/contents Community infrastructure levy regulations in full].
*[http://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/CIL-draft-charging-schedule-Aug-2011.pdf Draft proposal for a mayoral community infrastructure levy for London].
*Department for Communities and Local Government (CLG): [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/community-infrastructure-levy-guidance Community Infrastructure Levy guidance] 14 December 2012.
*CLG: [https://www.gov.uk/government/news/communities-to-receive-cash-boost-for-choosing-development Communities to receive cash boost for choosing development]. January 2013.
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/29/contents The Planning Act 2008]
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/982/contents/made The Community Infrastructure Levy (Amendment) Regulations 2013].
*The [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492390/contents Community Infrastructure Levy Regulations] (2010)

[[Category:Other_legislation]]
[[Category:Planning_permission]]
[[Category:Property_development]]
[[Category:Cost_/_business_planning]]

Payroll companies

2014-02-24T11:25:44Z

Gregor Harvie:

The government believes that ‘employment intermediaries’, or ‘payroll companies’ have been used to enable workers to falsely claim that they are self-employed sub-contractors when in fact they are permanent, full-time employees. This allows them to reduce their employment taxes and obligations. Payroll companies charge for this service, typically up to £25 a week, but payments can be as much as £1,250 per year (ref HM Treasury [https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/264647/Overview_of_legislation_in_draft.pdf Overview of Legislation in Draft] 10 December 2013).

Legislation will be introduced in the Finance Bill 2014 to prevent this avoidance strategy by treating payroll companies as employers and so requiring that they subject workers to tax and employee National Insurance Contributions (NICs) deductions at source and introducing a new liability to pay employer NICs.

These new measures will come into effect on 6 April 2014.

It is considered that this will have the greatest impact on the construction sector, where around 200,000 workers are thought to be employed through onshore employment intermediaries. These workers will face higher tax and NIC liabilities, but will no longer be paying service charges, will gain statutory payments such as statutory sick pay and maternity pay, some will be eligible for the national minimum wage and they may become eligible for other employment rights.

There is criticism in the industry that this measure will burden contractors with extra costs at a time when the economic recovery is still very fragile. It has been claimed that labour costs could rise by 25% and that this will hit sub-contractors on fixed-price contracts very hard (ref [http://www.constructionenquirer.com/2014/02/20/tough-stance-on-tax-change-stuns-contractors/ Construction Enquirer] 20 February 2014).

NB It has been reported that ‘rebates’ are sometimes offered by payroll companies to contractors and agencies that use them (ref [http://www.constructionenquirer.com/2014/02/19/end-of-road-for-payroll-company-kickbacks/ Construction Enquirer] 19 February 2014).

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*IR35.
*Mixed partnerships.
*PAYE.
*Personal service company.

=== External references. ===
*HM Treasury [https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/264647/Overview_of_legislation_in_draft.pdf Overview of Legislation in Draft] 10 December 2013.
*[http://www.constructionenquirer.com/2014/02/19/end-of-road-for-payroll-company-kickbacks/ Construction Enquirer] 19 February 2014. 
*[http://www.constructionenquirer.com/2014/02/20/tough-stance-on-tax-change-stuns-contractors/ Construction Enquirer] 20 February 2014.

[[Category:Contracts_/_payment]]
[[Category:Other_legislation]]

Mixed partnerships

2014-02-24T11:25:19Z

Gregor Harvie:

= '''Introduction''' =

Many professionals working in design and construction have established themselves as a Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) and some of these may be 'mixed partnerships'. This means that the members of the LLP are both corporate and individual members.

It is perfectly permissible for a company to be a member of a LLP and there are a variety of reasons why it may be considered appropriate or necessary for such an arrangement to be put in place. For example a corporate member could be the provider of much needed capital to a LLP, or it could be a provider of very specific services which could be of benefit to the LLP’s clients.

= HMRC =

HM Revenue & Customs (HMRC) however, view the existence of mixed partnerships rather differently and believe there is a significant loss to the exchequer through the use of such arrangements to avoid or, at the very least defer, the payment of tax and national insurance contributions (NICs).

So, with effect from April 2014 new legislation is being implemented which will have significant financial repercussions for any LLPs which have corporate members. In particular the new rules will target those corporate members who are controlled by or associated with individual members and which are allocated profit shares that are deemed 'excessive' by HMRC.

To understand this more fully some brief examples are provided:

== '''Example A''' ==

UK Building LLP makes a profit of £200,000 to 31st March 2013 and has three members: Tom, John, and ABC limited. The profits are allocated equally to Tom and John (£100K each) and none to ABC Limited. In this scenario Tom and John will both pay around £34,200 in tax and National Insurance (based upon 2013 tax year parameters, and assuming the single person’s tax free allowance).

== '''Example B''' ==

UK Building LLP makes a profit of £200,000 to 31st March 2013 and has three members: Tom, John, and ABC limited. In this example however, £80K of the profits are allocated equally to Tom and John (£40K each) and £120K to ABC Limited. In this scenario Tom and John will both pay around £9,000 in tax and National Insurance (based upon 2013 tax year parameters, and assuming the single person’s tax free allowance), and ABC Limited will pay £24,000 in corporation tax, assuming no deductible expenses within ABC Limited.

So the total tax take is £68,400 in Example A but only £42,000 in Example B

This simple analysis does not explain the whole story as further tax would be payable on income taken from ABC Limited either in the form of salary or dividends but in the event that no such income is taken or is deferred to a much later date, it is clear that there is a cash flow detriment to the Exchequer. At worst, there is a clear loss to the Exchequer in the event that when income is taken from ABC Limited it is taken by a standard rate taxpayer in lieu of the higher rate of tax being paid by John or Tom.

= Changes implemented by the Finance Bill =

HMRC are introducing revisions in the Finance Bill 2014 which will re-allocate 'excess' profits allocated to a non-individual member where the following conditions are met:
*A non-individual has a share of the firm’s profit.
*The non-individual’s share is excessive.
*An individual partner has the power to enjoy the non-individual’s share or there are deferred profit arrangements in place, and;
*It is reasonable to suppose that the whole or part of the non-individual’s share is attributable to that power or arrangements.

These proposals will affect all mixed partnerships regardless of their rationale. Those that have a sound commercial basis for their structure will be affected just as those which exist for tax saving purposes alone.

It is likely that many LLPs will opt to incorporate, but for those LLPs for whom this in neither desirable nor a viable option the matter of profit allocation with effect from April 2014 will become fraught with adverse consequences if these new rules are triggered.

----

This article was written by:--[[User%3AMartinc|Martinc]] 12:35, 20 February 2014 (UTC)

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Business model.
*Construction industry institutes and associations.
*Construction organisation design.
*IR35.
*Joint venture.
*Payroll companies.
*Partnering and joint ventures.
*Personal service company.
*Types of construction organisations.
*VAT

[[Category:Other_legislation]] [[Category:DCN_Legislation]]
[[Category:Taxation]]
[[Category:Cost_/_business_planning]]

Mixed partnerships

2014-02-24T11:19:08Z

Gregor Harvie:

= '''Introduction''' =

Many professionals working in design and construction have established themselves as a Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) and some of these may be 'mixed partnerships'. This means that the members of the LLP are both corporate and individual members.

It is perfectly permissible for a company to be a member of a LLP and there are a variety of reasons why it may be considered appropriate or necessary for such an arrangement to be put in place. For example a corporate member could be the provider of much needed capital to a LLP, or it could be a provider of very specific services which could be of benefit to the LLP’s clients.

= HMRC =

HM Revenue & Customs (HMRC) however, view the existence of mixed partnerships rather differently and believe there is a significant loss to the exchequer through the use of such arrangements to avoid or, at the very least defer, the payment of tax and national insurance contributions (NICs).

So, with effect from April 2014 new legislation is being implemented which will have significant financial repercussions for any LLPs which have corporate members. In particular the new rules will target those corporate members who are controlled by or associated with individual members and which are allocated profit shares that are deemed 'excessive' by HMRC.

To understand this more fully some brief examples are provided:

== '''Example A''' ==

UK Building LLP makes a profit of £200,000 to 31st March 2013 and has three members: Tom, John, and ABC limited. The profits are allocated equally to Tom and John (£100K each) and none to ABC Limited. In this scenario Tom and John will both pay around £34,200 in tax and National Insurance (based upon 2013 tax year parameters, and assuming the single person’s tax free allowance)

== '''Example B''' ==

UKBuilding LLP makes a profit of £200,000 to 31st March 2013 and has three members: Tom, John, and ABC limited. In this example however, £80K of the profits are allocated equally to Tom and John (£40K each) and £120K to ABC Limited. In this scenario Tom and John will both pay around £9,000 in tax and National Insurance (based upon 2013 tax year parameters, and assuming the single person’s tax free allowance), and ABC Limited will pay £24,000 in corporation tax, assuming no deductible expenses within ABC Limited.

So the total tax take is £68,400 in Example A but only £42,000 in Example B

This simple analysis does not explain the whole story as further tax would be payable on income taken from ABC Limited either in the form of salary or dividends but in the event that no such income is taken or is deferred to a much later date, it is clear that there is a cash flow detriment to the Exchequer. At worst, there is a clear loss to the Exchequer in the event that when income is taken from ABC Limited it is taken by a standard rate taxpayer in lieu of the higher rate of tax being paid by John or Tom.

= Changes implemented by the Finance Bill =

HMRC are introducing revisions in the Finance Bill 2014 which will re-allocate 'excess' profits allocated to a non-individual member where the following conditions are met:
*A non-individual has a share of the firm’s profit.
*The non-individual’s share is excessive.
*An individual partner has the power to enjoy the non-individual’s share or there are deferred profit arrangements in place, and;
*It is reasonable to suppose that the whole or part of the non-individual’s share is attributable to that power or arrangements.

These proposals will affect all mixed partnerships regardless of their rationale. Those that have a sound commercial basis for their structure will be affected just as those which exist for tax saving purposes alone.

It is likely that many LLPs will opt to incorporate, but for those LLPs for whom this in neither desirable nor a viable option the matter of profit allocation with effect from April 2014 will become fraught with adverse consequences if these new rules are triggered.

----

This article was written by:--[[User%3AMartinc|Martinc]] 12:35, 20 February 2014 (UTC)

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Business model.
*Construction industry institutes and associations.
*Construction organisation design.
*IR35.
*Joint venture.
*Payroll companies.
*Partnering and joint ventures.
*Personal service company.
*Types of construction organisations.
*VAT

[[Category:Other_legislation]]
[[Category:Taxation]]
[[Category:Cost_/_business_planning]]

Primavera

2014-02-23T12:06:53Z

Gregor Harvie: Redirected page to Primavera PM

#redirect:[[Primavera_PM|Primavera_PM]]

Talk:Construction 2025

2014-02-22T10:37:18Z

Gregor Harvie:

Is anyone else of the opinion that the Construction 2025 report is similar to the rubbish we have been reading in previous reports?

----

If all of the savings projected in all the reports had actually been delivered, construction would now be free. There is a list of similar reports all the way back to 1934 at Construction Industry Reports. 

They all say similar things, but fail to resolve the contradiction between making substantial savings in construction costs whilst also delivering whole-life value. Whole life value requires recognition of the fact that the cost of construction is tiny compared to the cost of running a business through the life of a building - ie short term savings may run against long term interests.

Talk:Construction 2025

2014-02-22T10:36:51Z

Gregor Harvie:

Is anyone else of the opinion that the Construction 2025 report is similar to the rubbish we have been reading in previous reports?

----

If all of the savings projected in all the reports had actually been delivered, construction would now be free. There is a list of similar reports all the way back to 1934 at [http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Construction_industry_reports&nbsp http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Construction_industry_reports] 

They all say similar things, but fail to resolve the contradiction between making substantial savings in construction costs whilst also delivering whole-life value. Whole life value requires recognition of the fact that the cost of construction is tiny compared to the cost of running a business through the life of a building - ie short term savings may run against long term interests.

Planning consultant

2014-02-10T20:46:27Z

Gregor Harvie:

The term ‘town planning’ was first used in the UK in 1906, and in 1909, the Housing, Town Planning, etc Act 1909 first empowered local authorities to prepare development schemes for land. The roles that planners now undertake are very diverse, including:
*Working within the planning system (typically for the local planning authority) helping in the administration and enforcement of the planning process, determining planning applications and developing local planning policy and local plans.
*Working as consultants for clients.
*Employed by companies in the built environment sector, such as multi-disciplined practices, large developers, economists and policy advisers, research organisations and so on.

Planning is not a protected profession, however, the designation ‘chartered planning consultant’ is awarded by the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI). The RTPI is the largest planning institute in Europe with over 23,000 members.

Members may be:
*Associate members.
*Technical members.
*Chartered members.
*Licentiates.
*Students.
*Legal associates.
*Affiliates.

Chartered planning consultants must have a degree in planning and/or a number of years experience in spatial planning. They must comply with an independent [http://www.rtpi.org.uk/membership/professional-standards/ Code of Professional Conduct], hold professional indemnity insurance and undertake continued professional development (CPD) throughout their career to ensure their knowledge remains up to date.

Planning is a very complex subject and rapidly changing subject and the legal framework is very extensive. Despite repeated attempts to streamline planning, it can be a significant risk on projects, and clients may be reluctant to spend large sums of money on fees until they have some certainty that planning permission will be received. In 2008, The Killian Pretty Review, 'Planning applications: A faster and more responsive system' found that 10% of major developments were delayed by a year or more, and that permissions for small changes to property were a barrier to growth.

For this reason, it is common for clients to appoint a planning consultant on large, high risk or controversial projects to help navigate the system and reduce the risk of failing to obtain planning permission. Planning consultants are often appointed because they have an existing knowledge of the local area, local planning policy, local community groups and other stakeholder groups and they have an existing relationship with the local panning authority.

The services of a planning consultant might include:
*Contributing to the assessment of potential development sites.
*Advising on the likelihood of and preparation of environmental impact assessments.
*Assisting in the development of development masterplans.
*Providing an independent view of development proposals.
*Providing advice on how and when to seek planning permission.
*Preparing and submitting planning applications.
*Carrying out negotiations and building relationships with the local planning authority, local community and other stakeholders.
*Making representations to planning committees and public inquiries
*Advise on planning appeals.
*Advising on local planning policy.
*Assisting with urban design.
*Undertaking specialist research.
*Advising on issues related to transport traffic and infrastructure.
*Advising on neighbourhood planning issues.

The RTPI maintains a [http://www.rtpiconsultants.co.uk/ searchable database] to help clients find planning consultants.

= Find out more =

=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===
*Consultants.
*Killian Pretty Review.
*Penfold Review.
*Planning permission.
*Professional indemnity insurance.
*RTPI.
*Taylor review.

=== External references ===
*RTPI [http://www.rtpiconsultants.co.uk/ Online directory of planning consultants].
*[http://www.rtpi.org.uk/membership/professional-standards/ Code of Professional Conduct]
*[http://www.rtpi.org.uk/about-the-rtpi/ About the RTPI]

[[Category:Products_/_components]]
[[Category:Roles_/_services]]

User:Gregor Harvie

2014-01-21T14:20:22Z

Gregor Harvie:

Dr Gregor Harvie RIBA is an architect and project management consultant. He has a PhD in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and has published research papers on fabric structures, environmental design and CFD. As well as an impressive academic record, Gregor has had the practical experience of working for multi-disciplinary practices: the PSA, WS Atkins and WYG.

Gregor was the technical trouble-shooter for the government agency which managed the design and construction of the Millennium Dome. More recently, Gregor acted as client representative for a major masterplanning exercise to rationalise building facilities on 200 acres of estate for the University of Southampton.

He is co-founder of [[User%3ADesigning%20Buildings|Designing Buildings Wiki]] and director of creative consultancy [[User%3AGanda|Ganda Harvie]]. He has a post graduate diploma in fine art and has had three solo exhibitions in London.

Talk:National planning policy framework NPPF

2013-10-05T05:39:43Z

Gregor Harvie:

To start a discussion about this article, click 'Edit' above and add your thoughts to this discussion page. Clicking the submit comment button will not start a discussion, it will just send a comment to our admin team.

User:Gregor Harvie

2013-09-09T09:50:09Z

Gregor Harvie:

Planning permission

2012-10-09T08:41:11Z

Gregor Harvie:

The [http://www.communities.gov.uk/planningandbuilding/ Department for Communities and Local Government] decides national planning policy for England. National planning policy is set out in the National Planning Policy Framework.

Planning permission is the legal process followed in order to decide whether proposed developments should be allowed to go ahead. Responsibility for planning lies with local planning authorities (usually, the planning department of the district or borough council). Other than permitted developments, (which are considered to have insignificant impact), all developments require planning permission. The [http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/permission/responsibilities/planningpermission/permitted Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) Order 1995] sets out details for developments that might be permitted without requiring a planning application.

Planning applications can be detailed or outline:

*Outline planning applications can be used to find out whether a proposed development is likely to be approved by the planning authority before substantial costs are incurred developing a detailed design. Outline planning applications allow the submission of outline proposals, the details of which may be agreed as 'reserved matters' applications at a later stage. NB applying for outline planning consent may not fall within the scope of services for members of the consultant team unless it has been separately identified under 'other activities'
*Detailed planning applications submit all the details of the proposed development at the same time.

Deciding whether to make an outline or detailed application, and when to make an application is of great importance. Typically clients wish to secure planning permission as soon as possible so as to minimise abortive design costs. However, being granted planning permission may become more likely as the design develops and more details can be provided to the planning authority.

On design and build projects delays in obtaining planning permission (which the contractor has taken reasonable steps to avoid) may be grounds for an extension of time, and loss and / or expense and may become grounds for termination of the contract if the delay results in the works being suspended.

On private finance initiative projects, the client should at least consult the local planning authority to establish the likely planning parameters for the project and perhaps seek a screening opinion as to whether an environmental impact assessment will be required before seeking bids. The client may also wish to obtain outline planning permission before seeking bids, or even to make the contract conditional upon detailed planning permission being received. The contractor (integrated supply team) may then be responsible for obtaining detailed planning permission or any further permissions, for which purpose the contractor acts as agent of the client. Failure to obtain detailed planning permission may result in termination of the contract, giving rise to compensation events.

Before making a planning application it is important to check with the local planning authority; when planning meetings are held and the what procedures are followed (procedures of planning meetings, number and types of drawings required, notices required, public consultation requirements etc.). It is also wise to enter into early consultations with the the local planning authority to gauge their likely reaction to the proposed development. Records should be kept of all communications with the local planning authority. This process will generally be led by the lead designer who may invite the client to attend particularly important meetings.

On large or sensitive projects it may be desirable to carry out an external consultation process. Ideally this process should being early in the life of the project in order that it can influence the preparation of the brief. A great deal of care should be taken in preparing for a consultation process as this my be the first time that consultees have heard of the project and their initial reactions may be difficult to change. Appointing a specialists in consultation processes may be advisable on larger or more sensitive projects. See the article on the consultation process for more information.

Planning applications require payment of a fee (see the [http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/usefultools/ Planning Portal] form more details) which should be checked with the local planning authority. They also require specific forms to be completed, a cover letter describing the nature of the application, a list of drawings, and ownership certificates (See the articles on outline planning application and detailed planning application for more information).

The start date for the period for determination is defined by the date stamp on the application. The lead designer should obtain a copy of the planning officers report to the planning committee prior to the committee meeting and may, if permitted, wish to make a oral representation to the planning committee

The Department for Communities and Local Government provide [http://www.communities.gov.uk/planningandbuilding/planningbuilding/planningstatistics/livetables/livetablesondevelopmentcontrolst/ live tables on development control statistics] which give an indication of how long it might take for a decision to be made once a planning application has been submitted.

Permissions may be the subject of planning conditions, where, rather than refusing a planning application, a local planning authority might grant permission, but might for example restrict the use of the site or, require additional approvals for specific aspects of the development. Permissions may also be subject to planning obligations (also known as Section 106 Agreements) which are used to mitigate or compensate for negative impacts of development that might otherwise make them unacceptable. The development may also be subject to a community infrastructure levy. The introduction of the community infrastructure levy should result in a scaling back in the imposition of planning obligations between now and 2014 (see [http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/planningandbuilding/pdf/1897278.pdf Department for Communities and Local Government guidance] for the relationship between the levy and planning obligations):

If planning permission is refused, the applicant may lodge an appeal which will then usually be decided by an inspector acting for the Secretary of State.

Once planning permission has been received, the client should advertise the main contracts for the development, if advertisement is considered the appropriate method for identifying potential tenderers or if this is required by OJEU procurement rules

NB Demolition requires prior notification to be submitted to the local authority for determination on whether prior approval is required of the method of demolition where buildings are over 50 cubic metres and for walls or gates. Where demolition works may have an environmental impact, a screening opinion is required from the local authority on whether a full Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is required. Conservation area consent is required for demolition of a building over 115 cubic metres, and listed building consent is required for any part of a listed building.

NB The National Planning Policy Framework proposes that there should be a presumption in favour of sustainable development, that determination should be plan-led and that planning authorities should grant permission wherever the local plan is absent, silent, or out of date. They also propose that local communities will be able to produce their own neighbourhood plans. For more information see the article on the National Planning Policy Framework.

NB. For detailed descriptions of the sequence of activities that should be undertaken in order to prepare and submit a planning application, see the free work plan stages:

*Traditional contract: planning permission.
*Design and build: planning permission (design by contractor).
*Design and build: planning permission (design by consultant team).
*Construction management: planning permission.
*Management contract: planning permission.
*Public project: planning permission.

= See also =

*See also statutory approvals for other consents that might be required (for example environmental impact assessment, listed building consent or conservation area consent)
*National Planning Policy Framework.
*Outline planning application.
*Detailed planning application.
*Planning appeal.
*Planning fees.
*Planning conditions.
*Planning obligations.
*Statutory approvals.
*Statutory authorities.
*Design and access statements.
*Consultation process.
*Environmental impact assessment.
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/planningsystem/planningpermission Planning portal guidance on planning permission].
*RICS guidance: [http://www.rics.org/site/scripts/documents_info.aspx?categoryID=241&documentID=418 Commercial Planning Permission guide].
*[http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/planning/usefultools/ Planning portal: useful tools], including a fee calculator.
*[http://www.architecture.com/Files/RIBAHoldings/PolicyAndInternationalRelations/Policy/GuidetoLocalism-Part1NeighbourhoodPlanning.pdf Guide to Localism: Opportunities for architects: Part one: Neighbourhood planning]
*[http://www.architecture.com/Files/RIBAHoldings/PolicyAndInternationalRelations/Policy/GuidetoLocalism-Part2Gettingcommunityengagementright.pdf Guide to Localism: Opportunities for architects: Part two: Getting community engagement right]
*[http://www.pas.gov.uk Planning Advisory Service]. Helping councillors and local authority officers understand and respond to planning reform.
*Localism Act.
*Neighbourhood planning.
*Community right to build.

 
 

[[Category:Design]]
[[Category:Planning_permission]]
[[Category:Property_law]]
[[Category:Contracts_/_payment_/_payment]]
[[Category:Property_development]]

City floorspace survey

2012-08-07T07:10:51Z

Gregor Harvie: Protected "City floorspace survey" ([edit=author] (indefinite))

== The Ingleby Trice City Floorspace Survey: monitoring the pulse of City property. ==

This survey is the only City research published monthly. It provides a touchstone to the day-to-day market by providing reliable long term data to help clients formulate current and future property strategies.

It is reproduced here with the kind permission of Ingleby Trice.

Click [http://www.inglebytrice.co.uk/index.php?page=research here] to subscribe to the survey.

'''Last month'''

{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" border="1" style="width: 500px;"
|-
|
'''JUNE 2012'''

|
Sq. Ft

(Sq. M)

|
Change over

6 monthly

average

|-
|
'''City Take-up'''

[[File:Table1.jpg|182px|Table1.jpg]]

|
'''570,365 sq. ft'''

(52,989 sq. m)

|
Up

|-
|
'''City Availability'''

[[File:Table2.jpg|182px|Table2.jpg]]

|
'''6,647,864 sq. ft'''

(617,607 sq. m)

| Down
|-
|
'''City Fringe Take-up'''

[[File:Table3.jpg|182px|Table3.jpg]]

|
'''348,755 sq. ft'''

(32,400 sq. m)

| Up
|-
|
'''City Fringe Availability'''

[[File:Table4.jpg|182px|Table4.jpg]]

|
'''4,520,371 sq. ft'''

(419,957 sq. m)

| Down
|}

'''City graph - June 2012'''

'''[[File:Citygraph-June12-2.jpg|549px|Citygraph-June12-2.jpg]]'''

'''Previous month'''

{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" border="1" style="width: 500px;"
|-
|
'''MAY 2012'''

|
Sq. Ft

(Sq. M)

|
Change over

6 monthly

average

|-
|
'''City Take-up'''

|
'''268,074 sq. ft'''

(24,905 sq. m)

| Down
|-
|
'''City Availability'''

|
'''7,117,785 sq. ft'''

(661,265 sq. m)

| Down
|-
|
'''City Fringe Take-up'''

|
'''332,842 sq. ft'''

(30,922 sq. m)

| Up
|-
|
'''City Fringe Availability'''

|
'''4,592,752 sq. ft'''

(426,681 sq. m)

| Up
|}

'''City graph - May 2012'''

[[File:Citygraph-May12.jpg|523px|Citygraph-May12.jpg]] This article was written by --[[User:InglebyTrice|InglebyTrice]] 15:30, 2 August 2012 (BST) 
 

[[Category:Property_development]]
[[Category:Cost_/_business_planning]]
[[Category:Cost_/_business_planning]]

City floorspace survey

2012-08-07T07:10:23Z

Gregor Harvie:

Talk:Top ten tips for building design and construction projects

2012-07-10T07:52:57Z

Gregor Harvie:

What about ...

Know your costs from the outset. The only way to make a building cheaper, is to make it smaller. --[[User:Designing Buildings|designing buildings]] 08:48, 10 July 2012 (BST)

Know what's in your budget and what's not. Equipment may not need to be in the budget, but what about fitting the equipment? --[[User:Gregor Harvie|Gregor]][[User:Gregor Harvie|Harvie]] 08:52, 10 July 2012 (BST)