Designing Buildings - User contributions [en]

User:Daniel Wells

2022-11-10T11:27:53Z

Daniel Wells:

Established in 1980, EAB Associates are suppliers of specialist building materials including waterproof coatings, protective paints and coatings, coatings for cool roofs, and foaming agent for making cellular concrete (foamed concrete).

Based in the United Kingdom we have exported our products to customers around the world.

We have expert knowledge of our building and construction products, and are able to provide advice in their use and application.

For information about our products please visit our website and/or contact us.

Concrete

2022-11-10T09:56:12Z

Daniel Wells:

[[File:Concrete290.jpg|link=File:Concrete290.jpg]]

= Introduction =

Concrete is the most commonly used man-made material on earth. It is an important construction material used extensively in buildings, bridges, roads and dams. Its uses range from structural applications, to paviours, kerbs, pipes and drains.

Concrete is a composite material, consisting mainly of Portland cement, water and aggregate (gravel, sand or rock). When these materials are mixed together, they form a workable paste which then gradually hardens over time.

For the different types, see Types of concrete.

= History =

A material similar to concrete was first developed by the Egyptians, consisting of lime and gypsum. Typically, lime, chalk or oyster shells continued being used as the cement forming agent until the early-1800s.

In 1824, Portland cement, a mixture of limestone and clay was burned and ground, and since then, this has remained the predominant cementing agent used in concrete production.

= Benefits of concrete =

There are numerous positive aspects of concrete:

* It is a relatively cheap material and has a relatively long life with few maintenance requirements.
* It is strong in compression.
* Before it hardens it is a very pliable substance that can easily be shaped.
* It is non-combustible.

= Limitations of concrete =

The limitations of concrete include:

* Relatively low tensile strength when compared to other building materials.
* Low ductability.
* Low strength-to-weight ratio.
* It is susceptible to cracking.

= Characteristics of concrete =

The characteristics of concrete are determined by the aggregate or cement used, or by the method that is used to produce it. The water-to-cement ratio is the determining factor in ordinary structural concrete with a lower water content resulting in a stronger concrete.

This, however, reduces the workability (and pumpability) of the concrete, which can be measured using the slump test. The grading, shape, texture and proportion of aggregate can also have a similar affect. If a particularly strong concrete is required, the amount of aggregate can be reduced in relation to the cement. However, cement is a significant cost factor, and increasing its proportion in the mix will increase the overall price.

When making concrete, admixtures can be used to alter the characteristics of the concrete. For example accelerators can be used to make it set more rapidly, retarders to make it set more slowly, superplasticisers to reduce the water content etc.

For more information, see The properties of concrete.

= Concrete strength =

Concrete strength is determined by the force required to crush it and is measured in pounds per square inch or kilograms per square centimetre. Strength can be affected by many variables including moisture and temperature.

The tensile strength of concrete can be improved with the addition of metal rods, wires, cables or mesh. Where very high tensile stresses are expected (such as in wide unsupported spans in roofs or bridges) concrete can include pre-tensioned steel wires. This creates compressive forces in the concrete that help offset the tensile forces that the structure is subject to.

Sacrificial probes can be integrated within concrete to provide strength determination and this is likely to help improve construction methodologies.

For more information, see Testing concrete.

= Formwork =

Formwork is a temporary mould into which concrete is poured and formed. Traditional formwork is fabricated using timber, but it can also be constructed from steel, glass fibre reinforced plastics and other materials.

Formwork may be; temporary, re-usable, or stay-in-place. There are also a number of proprietary systems such as those used to support vertical formwork while concrete cures, consisting of a series of tubes and ties.

Efficiency within concrete construction is being improved by the adoption of hybrid solutions and innovations in formwork such as self-climbing forms.

See Formwork for more information.

= Sustainability =

Concrete has a relatively high embodied energy, resulting from its extraction, manufacture and transportation. Waste materials can be included within the concrete mix such as Recycled Crushed Aggregate (RCA), Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (GGBS) and Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA).

In addition, moves are being made to assess the potential of using recycled concrete, however, issues such as moisture content and material variability may make this unviable.

Concrete is a very durable, low maintenance material and can provide thermal mass, helping reduce the energy consumption of buildings in operation.

= Related articles on Designing Buildings =

* 3D concrete printer.
* Admixture, additive or agent.
* Admixtures in concrete.
* Alkali-activated binder.
* Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR).
* Alkali-silica reaction (ASR).
* Architectural concrete.
* Blocked concrete delivery pumps.
* Cast-in-place concrete.
* Cellular concrete.
* Cement and concrete companies release 2050 Climate Ambition.
* Cement-free precast product.
* Cement mortar.
* Concrete batching plants.
* Concrete boom pumps.
* Concrete in aggressive ground (SD 1).
* Concrete joints.
* Concrete masonry unit CMU.
* Concrete repair mortars.
* Concrete-steel composite structures.
* Concrete superplasticizer.
* Concrete to cover.
* Concrete vs. steel.
* Concreting plant.
* Decarbonising concrete in the UK.
* Defective Concrete Blocks Grant Scheme.
* Differences between jumpform and slipform climbing formwork systems.
* Glass reinforced concrete.
* Hempcrete.
* How to clean concrete.
* Laitance.
* Lime concrete.
* Limestone calcined clay cement LC3.
* Portland cement.
* Precast concrete.
* Prestressed concrete.
* Power float.
* Pyrite and mica redress issues in Dail Eireann.
* Rebar.
* Recycled concrete aggregate RCA.
* Reinforced concrete.
* Scabbling.
* Screed.
* Self-compacting concrete.
* Slip form.
* Smart concrete.
* Spanish brutalism.
* Stationary pump skills.
* Stratification of concrete.
* Testing concrete.
* Textile-reinforced mortars TRM.
* The properties of concrete.
* The World Recast: 70 buildings from 70 years of Concrete Quarterly.
* The use of concrete structures to protect construction sites.
* Thomas Edison's concrete cottages.
* Types of concrete.
* Ultra high performance fibre concrete.
* Vibration Compaction Technology.
* What will happen if we use too much rebar in concrete?

[[Category:DCN_Definition]] [[Category:DCN_Product_Knowledge]] [[Category:Products_/_components]]

Road construction

2022-11-09T17:18:12Z

Daniel Wells:

[[File:Road_surfacing.jpg|link=File:Road_surfacing.jpg]]

= Introduction =

The methods of constructing roads have changed a lot since the first roads were built around 4,000 BC – made of stone and timber.

The first Roman roads were stone paved, built in North Africa and Europe for military operations. Road construction techniques were gradually improved by the study of road traffic, stone thickness, road alignment, and slope gradients, developing to use stones that were laid in a regular, compact design, and covered with smaller stones to produce a solid layer.

Modern roads tend to be constructed using asphalt and/or concrete.

Very broadly, the construction of roads can be described by three processes:

* Setting out.
* Earthworks.
* Paving construction.

= Setting out =

This is carried out following the dimensions specified in layout drawings.

A commonly used setting out procedure is the profile board method. A series of boards that show the exact level 1 metre above the completed construction level are placed at intervals along the proposed line of the road. A profile board with a fixed height, called the traveller, is used for controlling the excavated levels between these profile boards. By placing the traveller in the sight-line between two level boards, it can be seen whether or not the excavation has been carried out to correct levels and adjusted accordingly.

The level of each profile board is controlled using a line level which is a short spirit level hung from a nylon string. The line operator moves the string up or down until the bubble is centred.

Junctions, hammer heads, turning bays and intersecting curves are laid out in a similar manner.

= Earthworks =

Earthwork is one of the major works involved in road construction. It involves the removal of topsoil, along with any vegetation, before scraping and grading the area to the finished ‘formation level’. This is usually done using a tractor shovel, grader or bulldozer. Below the formation level, the soil is known as the ‘subgrade’. It is essential that the strength of the subgrade is tested prior to earthwork beginning.

Most earthworks are formed by cut-and-fill, and the type of ‘fill’ material must be considered, not only in terms of its physical properties, but on the conditions in which it is to be used, and the methods of compaction.

Depending on its quality, compressible subsoil may be removed or stabilised. If the cost of full or partial excavation of subsoil is uneconomical and would be likely to result in consolidation, sand wicks or sand drains may be used. Sand wicks are sand-filled boreholes beneath the road embankment that give greater stability to the soil by decreasing the length that water has to travel in a drainage path, so dissipating water pressure. Sand drains alongside the road are used to intercept ground water.

Subsoil drainage should be provided to deal with seepage through pavements and verges, from higher ground and a result of the seasonal rise and fall of the water table.

=== Subgrade strength ===

The required thickness of the pavement is determined by the subgrade strength, so it is desirable to make the subgrade as strong as possible.

The strength of the subgrade can be achieved by using the following techniques:

* Removal of poor material in cuttings and replacing with selected fill.
* Compacting subgrade to a high dry density.
* Providing adequate subsoil drainage.
* Soil stabilisation methods such as the use of cement, bituminous materials or chemicals.

For more information, see Types of soil.

The subgrade strength will decrease as moisture content increases so protection may be required if it is to left exposed for any length of time.

Protection covering can be either:

* Medium gauge plastic sheeting with 300 mm laps.
* Sprayed bituminous binder with a sand topping.

= Paving construction =

Once the subgrade has been prepared and drainage or buried services installed, the paving construction can begin. Paving can be either flexible or rigid. There are pros and cons to each type, with one being selected over the other depending on the specific needs of a project.

Rigid pavements tend to have lower maintenance costs, a longer design life and higher flexural strength; but flexible pavements tend to have lower construction costs and have a higher ability to expand and contract with temperature and so do not need expansion joints.

== Flexible paving ==

Flexible paving consists of materials applied in layers directly over the subgrade to which the traffic loads are distributed. To prevent permanent deformation, and therefore an uneven running surface, the thicknesses of individual layers must be capable of distributing such loads. The subgrade is compacted with the sub-base on top of it. On top of this is laid the surfacing which is made up of the base layer and the wearing course.

=== Surfacing ===

The wearing course is the upper layer of bituminous material, often denser and stronger than the base layer. The thickness depends on the material specification and the amount of wear that is expected. Desired properties are good non-skid capabilities, minimal glare and acceptable durability.

The main materials that are used are hot rolled asphalt (HRA), dense bitumen macadam (DBM), dense tar macadam (DTM) and porous asphalt (PA). PA is especially suitable as it is an open-graded material that is designed to allow rapid drainage of surface water, thereby reducing spray as well as tyre noise.

The base will typically have a minimum thickness of 60 mm and is usually made of dense bitumen macadam or asphalt. It is laid with the appropriate crossfalls and gradients.

=== Sub-base ===

This is placed in a layer usually not exceeding 150 mm over the subgrade after waterproofing is complete. Various materials can be used but it is common for crushed stone or dry lean concrete (such as 1 : 15) laid and compacted by heavy rollers. Cellular Concrete (Foamed Concrete) is another material that can be used for the sub-base, the thickness and strength required depends upon the type of road.

== Rigid paving ==

Rigid paving consists of a reinforced or unreinforced insitu concrete slab laid over a thin granular base course. The rigidity and strength of the pavement enables the loads and stresses to be distributed over a wide area of the subgrade.

Rigid paving is made up of the following layers (from bottom to top):

* Subgrade.
* Sub-base of thick crushed stone. Usually to a thickness of 80 mm.
* Anti-friction membrane normally made of polythene sheeting. Also prevents grout loss from freshly laid concrete.
* Insitu concrete paving slab. Reinforcement in the form of either steel fabric or re-bar may be used.
* Asphalt or similar topping if required.

Longitudinal and transverse joints are required in rigid paving between the slabs, limiting the stresses applied due to subgrade restraint (friction between the pavement and subgrade), and providing room for expansion and contraction movements. The spacing of road joints is determined by:

* Thickness of the slab.
* Whether there is reinforcement in the slab or not.
* The expected traffic load and flow rate.
* The temperature at which concrete is laid.

For more information, see Road joints.

For more information, see Highway drainage.

For more information, see Kerbs.

= Related articles on Designing Buildings =

* Bitumen binder may delay road surface deterioration.
* Bituminous mixing and laying plant.
* Britain's historic paving.
* Choosing road surfacing specialists.
* Code of Practice for Ironwork Systems Installation and Refurbishment.
* Cul-de-sac.
* Deck.
* Design and Check Certificates.
* Glossary of paving terms.
* Gravel v hardcore v aggregates.
* Highway authority.
* Highway drainage.
* Infrastructure and Projects Authority.
* Mobile asphalt stations.
* Movement joint.
* NEC contracts - road development and management schemes.
* Overview of the road development process.
* Pavement.
* Road improvement scheme consultation.
* Road joints.
* Road traffic management.
* Roadworks.
* Street works.
* Successful road kerb trial.
* Types of road and street.
* Vision and validate: a third way in designing the roads of the future.
* What are smart motorways and how do they work?

= External references =

* ‘Introduction to civil engineering construction’ (3rd ed.), HOLMES, R., The College of Estate Management (1995)
* ‘Building Construction Handbook’ (6th ed.), CHUDLEY, R., GREENO, R., Butterworth-Heinemann (2007)

[[Category:DCN_Guidance]] [[Category:Construction_techniques]] [[Category:Products_/_components]]

Thermal conductivity

2022-11-09T16:38:19Z

Daniel Wells:

= Introduction =

Thermal conductivity (sometimes referred to as k-value or lambda value (λ)) is a measure of the rate at which temperature differences transmit through a material. The lower the thermal conductivity of a material, the slower the rate at which temperature differences transmit through it, and so the more effective it is as an insulator. Very broadly, the lower the thermal conductivity of a building's fabric, the less energy is required to maintain comfortable conditions inside.

Thermal conductivity is a fundamental material property independent of thickness. It is measured watts per meter kelvin (W/mK).

The thermal resistance of the layers of the a building's fabric (R measured in in m²K/W) can be calculated from the thickness of each layer / the thermal conductivity of that layer.

The U value of an element of a building can be calculated from sum of the thermal resistances (R-values) of the layers that make up the element plus its internal and external surface resistances (Ri and Ro).

U-value = 1 / (ΣR + Ri + Ro)

U-values (sometimes referred to as heat transfer coefficients or thermal transmittances) are used to measure how effective elements of a buildings fabric are as insulators.

The standards for the measurement of thermal conductivity are BS EN 12664, BS EN 12667 and BS EN 12939. In the absence of values provided by product manufacturers following thermal conductivity tests, the thermal conductivity data obtained from BS EN 12524 Building materials and products. Hygrothermal properties.

= Thermal conductivity of typical building materials =

Thermal conductivity values of typical building materials shown below.

{|
|width="50%"| Material
|width="50%"| W/mK
|-
| Blockwork (light)
| 0.38
|-
| Blockwork (medium)
| 0.51
|-
| Blockwork (dense)
| 1.63
|-
| Brick (exposed)
| 0.84
|-
| Brick (protected)
| 0.62
|-
| Chipboard
| 0.15
|-
| Concrete (aerated)
| 0.16
|-
| Concrete (cellular 400 kg/m3)
| 0.1
|-
| Concrete (cellular 1200 kg/m3)
| 0.4
|-
| Concrete (dense)
| 1.4
|-
| fibreglass quilt
| 0.033
|-
| glass
| 1.05
|-
| glass foam aggregate (dry)
| 0.08
|-
| hemp slabs
| 0.40
|-
| hempcrete
| 0.25
|-
| mineral wool
| 0.038
|-
| mortar
| 0.80
|-
| phenolic foam (PIR)
| 0.020
|-
| plaster (gypsum)
| 0.46
|-
| plasterboard (gypsum)
| 0.16
|-
| polystyrene foam
| 0.032
|-
| polyurethane foam (PUR)
| 0.025
|-
| render (sand/cement)
| 0.50
|-
| screed (cement/sand)
| 0.41
|-
| steel
| 16 - 80
|-
| stone (limestone)
| 1.30
|-
| stone (sandstone)
| 1.50
|-
| stone (granite)
| 1.7 - 4.0
|-
| stone chippings
| 0.96
|-
| straw bale
| 0.09
|-
| timber (softwood)
| 0.14
|-
| timber (hardwood - commonly used)
| 0.14 - 0.17
|-
| woodfibre board
| 0.11
|}

= Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki =

* Conventions for calculating linear thermal transmittance and temperature factors.
* g-value.
* Heat transfer.
* Insulation.
* k-value.
* Limiting fabric parameters.
* R-value.
* Thermal admittance.
* Thermal mass.
* U Value.
* U-value conventions in practice: Worked examples using BR 443.

[[Category:DCN_Definition]] [[Category:DCN_Guidance]] [[Category:DCN_Standard]] [[Category:Theory]] [[Category:Standards_/_measurements]]

Bulk filling materials

2022-11-09T16:21:23Z

Daniel Wells:

The term ‘fill’ refers to material used to artificially raise existing ground levels. Bulk filling materials typically include soil, rocks and aggregates and coal ash.

Soil is used for example, for the formation of embankments and other areas of landscape that require fill. It is common to 'cut' soil from the high points of a site and place it in layers in lower areas, in a process known as 'cut and fill'. For more information see Cut and fill.

The soil used for bulk filling must be suitable to remain stable in the long-term. Examples of unsuitable soil material for filling includes:

* Soil from swamps, bogs and marshes.
* Perishable material such as peat, logs and stumps.
* Frozen materials.
* Materials having a liquid limit exceeding 80 and/or a plasticity index exceeding 50.

See also: Types of soil.

Rock fill consists of hard material of a suitable size for compaction and may include crushed stone, hard brick, concrete or other hard inert material. For more information, see Aggregate.

Coal ash is a material obtained from coal-fired power stations. For more information, see Coal ash.

Cellular Concrete (Foamed Concrete) has the advantages that it does not require compaction, does settle over time and it can be re-excavated at a later date if necessary. Large amounts can be placed quickly through small openings, so it is often used for emergency void filling, for example, following the appearance of sink holes or an underground tunnel collapse.

= Related articles on Designing Buildings =

* Aggregate.
* Alluvium.
* Ballast.
* Blockwork.
* Brick.
* Building on fill.
* Chert.
* Coal ash.
* Construction materials.
* Cut and fill.
* Fill.
* Gravel v hardcore v aggregates.
* Gravel.
* Hardcore.
* Measuring stockpiles using image-based 3D reconstruction.
* Sand.
* Trench fill foundations.

[[Category:DCN_Definition]] [[Category:DCN_Guidance]] [[Category:DCN_Product_Knowledge]] [[Category:Construction_techniques]] [[Category:Products_/_components]]

Roof insulation

2022-11-09T14:12:19Z

Daniel Wells:

= Introduction =

Because of its buoyancy, hot air tends to rise, and as a result buildings that are inadequately insulated can lose a quarter of their heat through their roof. There may also be significant heat gains through roofs during the summer. This means that insulating a loft, attic or roof is a simple and effective way of reducing heat loss, the size of heating and cooling systems, energy usage and so carbon emissions.

Selection of the type of roof insulation depends on considerations such as; the roof design, the use of the building, climate, space availability, access, whether the roof is pitched (sloping) or flat, and so on.

= Pitched (sloping) roof =

This type of roof is generally straightforward to insulate because of space availability and access, and so there are range of insulation options to choose from:

=== Warm roof ===

This is where insulation is installed immediately under the roof, within the plane of the roof pitch, meaning that the loft space beneath is also kept warm.

=== Cold roof ===

This is where insulation is installed immediately above the ceiling of the top storey, meaning the loft space is not heated. This generally involves insulating between and over joists immediately above the ceiling of the top floor.

Cold roof solutions are generally less expensive to install because there is a lot of available space, and so more economic, deeper insulation materials can be used.

= Flat roofs =

These types of roof can be more of a challenge to insulate, and generally there are three types of solution.

* Warm deck (or warm roof): The ‘deck’ of the roof is below the insulation.
* Cold deck (or cold roof): The insulation is installed below the roof deck. For ventilation purposes, and to avoid condensation forming, a ventilation slot is left usually around the perimeter of the roof.
* Inverted roof: The insulation is installed above the uppermost weatherproof membrane, of the roof structure, effectively protecting it from heat and cold which can cause damage in the long term.

For more information, see Flat roof defects.

= Condensation =

As warm, moist internal air permeates through the external envelope of a building towards the outside, it will tend to cool. When it reaches its ‘dew point’ temperature, the moisture it holds will begin to condense as water. If this happens within the structure of the building itself, this is known as interstitial condensation.

If interstitial condensation occurs within the inner skin of the building envelope, it can cause problems. To prevent this, vapour control layers (VCL) or vapour barriers are positioned on the warm side of the structure, preventing the warm moist air from penetrating to a point where it might reach its dew point temperature.

Great care must be taken when retrofitting insulation to an existing roof. If the insulation changes a warm roof into a cold roof, it may be necessary to install additional ventilation so that cold damp air can escape from the roof space and does not cause timber to decay.

= Types of insulation =

There are a range of materials available for roof insulation, some of which are relatively inexpensive and can be installed without specialist expertise:

=== Blanket insulation (also called matting insulation) ===

This is the most common and easiest to install. It generally comes in foil-backed rolls which can be placed between joists or rafters, and may be held in place by timber battens attached to and across the joists or rafters. It is usually made of mineral or glass wool but can also be made from plastic fibres, and natural fibres such as cotton and sheep’s wool. The depth of blanket-style insulation may be in the range of 250-270 mm.

=== Foam boards ===

These are rigid panels of insulation which are cut and fitted in place. Most commonly they are made from polystyrene, polyisocyanurate, and polyurethane, and may fitted to a depth of around 175 mm.

=== Radiant barriers ===

These inhibit heat transfer by thermal radiation. They are capable of being stapled to the underside of rafters. They are more effective in hot climates, and studies have shown that the reduced heat gain may allow for smaller air conditioning systems. In cool climates, installing more thermal insulation it is usually more cost effective. The thickness of a radiant barrier is usually between 3-5 mm.

=== Blown-in insulation ===

This involves cellulose mineral fibres being blown into a void in the roof space. Although requiring specialist equipment, it is quick to install and can be effective for spaces with limited access, such as gaps between roof joists.

=== Spray foam insulation ===

Typically, spray foam is formed of polyurethane and is sprayed as a liquid which gradually expands to up to 100 times its original volume. Once set, it creates an effective thermal and noise insulating layer. As spray foam can produce dangerous fumes and damage the structural integrity of the building if applied incorrectly, professional installation is recommended.

=== Cellular Concrete ===

On flat concrete roof slabs, cellular concrete (foamed concrete) can be used for both roof insulation and for creating a drainage slope. The density of the cellular concrete used typically ranges from 400 - 600 kg/m3 with corresponding thermal conductivities of 0.1 - 0.11 W/mK. The minimum thickness is 20 mm. The cellular concrete is typically covered by two layers of screed sandwiching a waterproofing membrane with tiles on top. This type of roof insulation is often used in the Middle East.

= U-values =

The building regulations require that reasonable provision be made to limit heat gains and losses through the fabric of new buildings and works to existing buildings. The approved documents to the buildings regulations set out the limiting standards for the properties of the fabric elements of the building, including roofs.

Approved Document L specifies minimum U-values for domestic and non-domestic buildings in England. Calculations by [http://www.kingspaninsulation.co.uk/Knowledge-Base/Building-Regulations.aspx Kingspan] have produced best starting point values that are thought to be suitable for common situations.

=== U-values for roofs in domestic buildings ===

Pitched roof – ceiling level

* New Build: Best starting point (fabric only) – 0.11
* Existing buildings: Extension – 0.16
* Existing buildings: Refurbishment – 0.16

Pitched roof – rafter level / Flat roof

* New Build: Best starting point (fabric only) – 0.11
* Existing buildings: Extension – 0.18
* Existing buildings: Refurbishment – 0.18

=== U-values for roofs in non-domestic buildings ===

Pitched roof – ceiling level

* New Build: Best starting point (fabric only) – 0.19
* Existing buildings: Extension – 0.16
* Existing buildings: Refurbishment – 0.16

Pitched roof – rafter level / Flat roof

* New Build: Best starting point (fabric only) – 0.13
* Existing buildings: Extension – 0.18
* Existing buildings: Refurbishment – 0.18

= Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki =

* Approved Document L.
* BREEAM.
* Cavity wall insulation.
* Code for Sustainable Homes.
* Fire insulation.
* Firring.
* Flat roof defects.
* Floor insulation.
* Heat transfer.
* Limiting fabric parameters.
* Loft insulation ruling.
* Mineral wool.
* Roof tiles.
* Roofing defects.
* Solid wall insulation.
* Sound insulation.
* Thermal bridge.
* Thermal insulation for buildings.
* Transparent insulation.
* Shell roof
* Types of roof.
* Underlay.
* U-value.
* U-What?
* Vapour barrier.
* Wall plate.

= External references =

* Kingspan - [http://www.kingspaninsulation.co.uk/Knowledge-Base/Building-Regulations.aspx Building Regulations and Standards]
* USwitch - [http://www.uswitch.com/insulation/guides/how-to-insulate-a-loft/ How to insulate a loft]
* Renewable Energy Hub - Types of insulation
* Energy.gov - [http://energy.gov/energysaver/types-insulation Insulation types]
* The Green Age - [http://www.thegreenage.co.uk/spray-foam-insulation-faq/ Spray foam insulation]
* British Urethane Foam Contractors Association - [http://www.bufca.co.uk http://www.bufca.co.uk]

[[Category:DCN_Product_Knowledge]] [[Category:Construction_techniques]] [[Category:Design]]