Solid wall - Revision history

Editor at 12:44, 7 June 2023

2023-06-07T12:44:40Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:44, 7 June 2023
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	* Preventing wall collapse.		* Preventing wall collapse.
	* Rainscreen.		* Rainscreen.
		+	* Solid walls to cavity walls, a brief history.
	* Solid wall insulation.		* Solid wall insulation.
	* The cavity wall real performance question.		* The cavity wall real performance question.

Editor at 07:41, 2 June 2023

2023-06-02T07:41:18Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:41, 2 June 2023
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−	~~= Introduction =~~
−
	Solid wall (sometimes a called a massive wall) refers to a construction of a single primary material in one layer, or different layered materials that make up a solid wall thickness. As opposed to a cavity wall which is built in layers with at least a central gap filled with air or an air entrained insulation material, to improve weathering resistance or thermal performance.		Solid wall (sometimes a called a massive wall) refers to a construction of a single primary material in one layer, or different layered materials that make up a solid wall thickness. As opposed to a cavity wall which is built in layers with at least a central gap filled with air or an air entrained insulation material, to improve weathering resistance or thermal performance.

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	In 2015 the UK Government reported that of the 26 million existing homes in the United Kingdom, over 8 million had solid walls or around 30%, in 2020 the UK Governments "[https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/970064/Detailed_Release_-_HEE_stats_18_Mar_2021_FINAL.pdf Household Energy Efficiency detailed release]" reported that 9% of all properties with solid walls were insulated.		In 2015 the UK Government reported that of the 26 million existing homes in the United Kingdom, over 8 million had solid walls or around 30%, in 2020 the UK Governments "[https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/970064/Detailed_Release_-_HEE_stats_18_Mar_2021_FINAL.pdf Household Energy Efficiency detailed release]" reported that 9% of all properties with solid walls were insulated.

−	= ~~Early History =~~	+	= Related articles on Designing Buildings =
−		+
−	Whilst there are many fine line between what constitutes an earth, adobe, cob building, all variations are essentially all solid wall construction as well as the use of straw, reed and grass in combination as natural found materials. Some of the evidence suggests variations on these construction types to have existed as early as 10,000 BCE or before, during the Paleolithic period in parts of Africa. The earliest solid wall adobe buildings are indicated to have been built around 8500 BCE, whilst the oldest existing and standing adobe building is known as the Granaries of the Ramasseum in Egypt, built by Ramses II around 1,300 BC in Western Thebes.	+
−		+
−	In the UK the earliest dry stone solid wall buildings would have been built during the Neolithic period, and would have been made up of two layers of stone, facing each side and packed with smaller infill stones. Scottish blackhouses as an example, date from around 3000 BCE, built with dry stone solid walls of over half a metre thickness, and a timber turf roof. Built to house crofters and their livestock during harsh weathers, these buildings were built as solid walls without an earth or lime mortar.	+
−		+
−	Although variations on solid earth building that may constitute as cob (the term is from the 1300's) probably existed earlier across the globe, the earliest solid cobwork walls are said date from around 1100's. These were called tabya and built in Maghreb and al-Andalus (as described by Ibn Khaldun in the 1300's). Whilst other examples, perhaps from the 1200's such as the great Mosque of Djenné, in Timbuktu or the local Togo houses, constructed of solid walls made of packed mud and straw or as bricks dried in the sun, stacked and rendered.	+
−		+
−	~~= Roman wall construction =~~	+
−		+
−	Although there is some evidence that lime was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, it was the Romans who moved from creating dry stone walls (or Cyclopean) walls, onto to sun dried brick walls. These solid walls were built with a base or socle of massive stone upon which sun-dried mud bricks were placed and bonded together with mud, to create solid one or two layer brick walls. It was through the development of a mortared rubble construction called opus caementicium that the Romans moved towards solid walls with roman concrete construction, which was quicker to build with. By around 150 BCEthe Romans commonly used lime as mortars to build solid stone walls. These walls were also solid but made up of two layers built concurrently for speed, firstly an inner core of small stones in mortar (caementa) and then a facing layer of stone or brick. Different names were given to the different facing finishes through the different period; Opus incertum a small block random pattern, Opus reticulatum a rectilinear horizontal pattern of stones, Opus testaceum a brick faced concrete and Opus mixtum rectilinear strips of stones and bricks.	+
−		+
−	A significant number of Roman remains from forts to amphitheatres and to gateways and temples can still be found around the UK, any of which highlight their use of solid stone construction, whilst some near complete buildings can also be found. The lighthouse at Dover Castle, of the old Roman port of Dubris is one of only 3 remaining and still standing Roman lighthouses in the world, and made of solid stone with mortar, as well as largest surviving gateway of Roman Britain at Colchester. It is worth noting that although many Roman walls may have been constructed as solid layered finished walls, in his monumental set of books, De architectura (On Architecture) Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, wrote possibly the first handbook for Roman architects and indeed possibly the first mention of the benefits of adding a cavity.	+
−		+
−	“…if a wall is in a state of dampness all over, construct a second thin wall a little way from it…at a distance suited to the circumstances…with vents to the open air…when the wall is brought up to the top, leave air holes there. For if the moisture has no means of getting out by vents at the bottom and at the top, it will not fail to spread all over the new wall.”	+
−		+
−	Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, De Architectura; The Ten Books on Architecture, Book VII, Chapter IV, On Stucco Work in Damp Places; Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan, Harvard University, Harvard University Press, 1914. Vitruvius wrote in the time of Augustus (63 BC – 14 AD) and it is believed that he wrote this around 15 BC.	+
−		+
−	“this we may learn from several monuments…in the course of time, the mortar has lost its strength…and so the monuments are tumbling down and going to pieces, with their joints loosened by the settling of the material that bound them together… He who wishes to avoid such a disaster should leave a cavity behind the facings, and on the inside build walls two feet thick, made of red dimension stone or burnt brick or lava in courses, and then bind them to the fronts by means of iron clamps and lead.”	+
−		+
−	~~Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, De Architectura; The Ten Books on Architecture, Book II, Chapter VII, Methods of Building Walls, 15 BC.~~	+
−		+
−	~~= Medieval wall construction =~~	+
−		+
−	After the fall of the Roman Empire around 500 CE and into the Middle Ages, solid stone wall construction continued as a prevelant building material throughout Britain. Medieval builders had a good understanding of engineering and of solid wall construction, often building large temporary timber structures to keep stone walls in place as the lime mortars set, creating increasingly sophisticated Medieval Architecture. A large number of churches were built prior to the battle of Hastings in 1066, many of which stand today, are some of the oldest buildings in England and most are solid wall construction of stone with lime mortar. The oldest is likely to be Beehive cells a monastic centre Eileach an Naoimh, Argyll, Scotland or St Martin's Church, Canterbury which is the oldest church building in England, and still being used.	+
−		+
−	During and after the Norman conquest, William the Conqueror ordered the construction of a vast number of castles, towers, cathedrals and churches across his realm, almost all of which were solid wall stone and most made from Caen stone brought from France. The best known examples of these are Norwich, Lincoln and Richmond Castles, Canterbury Cathedral,, Westminster Abbey and the Tower of London. In general the stone in most Medieval castle walls was built within a wooden frame designed to hold it in place while the mortar dried, in some cases for thicker walls, a cavity may have been introduced though it would usually have then been completely filled with rubble. In some examples very wide cavities were created between two single stones walls to house a thin stair case or rampart.	+
−		+
−	~~= Tudor, Stuart and Georgian periods =~~	+
−		+
−	One construction method that stems from the Medieval period and flourished in Tudor times is the half-timber framed house with a wattle and daub infill. Whilst one might not necessarily describe this type of wall build-up as solid, because of its light weight nature compared to stone, and despite being made up of different layered materials it is a full depth, through or solid construction. It was usually employed as part of a timber frame building as the infill between the framing elements. Wattle was substrate for the infill, usually wooden strips or thin branches, reeds, grasses or vines woven to form a plate spanning between and fixed to the frame. The wattle substrate was then covered with daub, made up of a combination of binders, clay, lime, chalk dust, etc, aggregates, subsoil, sand, crushed stone etc and reinforcement such as straw, hay and other fibrous materials creating a solid build-up between structural members also full depth, or covered internally.	+
−		+
−	Cob buildings, a single material solid wall construction method started to appear in parts of Devon, Cornwall and Wales around the 1400's, at the tail end of Medieval Britain into the Tudor period. This mixture of sandy sub-soil, clay and straw was often shuttered in place creating walls of half to one meter thick, wide enough to create a raised trail for livestock to walk over, thus stamping down the mixture to compact it. It was finished with a lime render and then a lime wash externally as well as in some cases a lime plaster internally creating a breathable hygroscopic massive solid wall build up.	+
−		+
−	In terms of stone, rubble, flint and brick constructions these generally remained solid throughout this period, although two layers of construction was relatively common, such as stone rubble externally and brick internally, the cavity between was normally filled with a rubble and lime mix and the occasional bonding stones joining both layers.	+
−		+
−	~~= Victorian period~~ =	+
−		+
−	It was not until the middle of the Victorian period in England that walls with two wythes (or vertical layers) and a gap as in a cavity wall construction started to appear. Whilst the book An encyclopaedia of architecture: historical, theoretical, and practical written by Joseph Gwilt was first published in 1842, indication seems to be that it only included an illustration of a cavity wall in the later edition of 1899, describing different brick ties. It is likely that the brick tax which was only repealed in 1850 would have impacted any earlier development, particularly as in its later years maximum brick sizes were stipulated.	+
−		+
−	~~with some of the earliest recorded guidance illustrated not until the late 1800's~~	+
−		+
−	~~usually from around the 1800's up to the~~	+

−	~~[https://archive.org/~~details~~/anencyclopdiaar00gwilgoog/page/n17/mode/2up?view=theater https://archive~~.~~org/details/anencyclopdiaar00gwilgoog/page/n17/mode/2up?view=theater]~~	+	* Accredited construction details ACDs.
		+	* Barrier wall system.
		+	* Brick.
		+	* Bricklayer.
		+	* Building damp-free cavity walls.
		+	* Bullseye window.
		+	* Cavity wall insulation.
		+	* Cavity tray.
		+	* Cold bridge.
		+	* Coping and capping
		+	* Crosswall construction.
		+	* Damp proof course.
		+	* Defects in brickwork.
		+	* Defects in stonework.
		+	* Dew point.
		+	* How to lay bricks.
		+	* Insulation.
		+	* Interstitial condensation.
		+	* Masonry.
		+	* Parapet.
		+	* Pistol brick.
		+	* Preventing wall collapse.
		+	* Rainscreen.
		+	* Solid wall insulation.
		+	* The cavity wall real performance question.
		+	* Treating brickwork with sealant or water repellent.
		+	* Types of brick.
		+	* Types of brick bonding.
		+	* Vapour barrier.
		+	* Wall plate.
		+	* Wall ties.
		+	* Wall tie failure.
		+	* Wall types.

−	[[Category:~~Articles_needing_more_work~~]]	+	[[Category:DCN_Commentary]] [[Category:DCN_Definition]] [[Category:Definitions]]

Editor at 07:34, 2 June 2023

2023-06-02T07:34:21Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:34, 2 June 2023
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	Solid wall (sometimes a called a massive wall) refers to a construction of a single primary material in one layer, or different layered materials that make up a solid wall thickness. As opposed to a cavity wall which is built in layers with at least a central gap filled with air or an air entrained insulation material, to improve weathering resistance or thermal performance.		Solid wall (sometimes a called a massive wall) refers to a construction of a single primary material in one layer, or different layered materials that make up a solid wall thickness. As opposed to a cavity wall which is built in layers with at least a central gap filled with air or an air entrained insulation material, to improve weathering resistance or thermal performance.

−	Solid wall construction might be described as the simplest type of wall construction, although some layered solid wall constructions may also be relatively complex in their own way. It is usually most common on historic buildings, or agricultural or out buildings that do not have thermal performance requirements. The most common forms were made with natural stone, as well as processed blocks or fired bricks. Other construction methods, often found on very early vernacular buildings that are made up of a single consistent layer throughout their thickness are cob, adobe, rammed earth as well as straw (bale), reed and grass, these may also referred to as solid construction.	+	Solid wall construction might be described as the simplest type of wall construction, although some layered solid wall constructions may also be relatively complex in their own way. It is usually most common on historic buildings, or agricultural or out buildings that do not have thermal performance requirements.
		+
		+	The most common forms were made with natural stone, as well as processed blocks or fired bricks. In general single skin brick walls have bricks laying side by side, whilst thicker two skin walls are intermingled with header bricks used as ties, though these may or may not contain a cavity.
		+
		+	Other construction methods, often found on very early vernacular buildings that are made up of a single consistent layer throughout their thickness are cob, adobe, rammed earth as well as straw (bale), reed and grass, these may also referred to as solid construction.

	In 2015 the UK Government reported that of the 26 million existing homes in the United Kingdom, over 8 million had solid walls or around 30%, in 2020 the UK Governments "[https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/970064/Detailed_Release_-_HEE_stats_18_Mar_2021_FINAL.pdf Household Energy Efficiency detailed release]" reported that 9% of all properties with solid walls were insulated.		In 2015 the UK Government reported that of the 26 million existing homes in the United Kingdom, over 8 million had solid walls or around 30%, in 2020 the UK Governments "[https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/970064/Detailed_Release_-_HEE_stats_18_Mar_2021_FINAL.pdf Household Energy Efficiency detailed release]" reported that 9% of all properties with solid walls were insulated.

Editor at 07:25, 2 June 2023

2023-06-02T07:25:25Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:25, 2 June 2023
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	= Victorian period =		= Victorian period =

−	It was not until the middle of the Victorian period in England that cavity wall construction started to appear, with the	+	It was not until the middle of the Victorian period in England that walls with two wythes (or vertical layers) and a gap as in a cavity wall construction started to appear. Whilst the book An encyclopaedia of architecture: historical, theoretical, and practical written by Joseph Gwilt was first published in 1842, indication seems to be that it only included an illustration of a cavity wall in the later edition of 1899, describing different brick ties. It is likely that the brick tax which was only repealed in 1850 would have impacted any earlier development, particularly as in its later years maximum brick sizes were stipulated.
		+
		+	with some of the earliest recorded guidance illustrated not until the late 1800's

	usually from around the 1800's up to the		usually from around the 1800's up to the
		+
		+	[https://archive.org/details/anencyclopdiaar00gwilgoog/page/n17/mode/2up?view=theater https://archive.org/details/anencyclopdiaar00gwilgoog/page/n17/mode/2up?view=theater]

	[[Category:Articles_needing_more_work]]		[[Category:Articles_needing_more_work]]

Editor at 06:37, 2 June 2023

2023-06-02T06:37:03Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:37, 2 June 2023
Line 37:		Line 37:
	= Tudor, Stuart and Georgian periods =		= Tudor, Stuart and Georgian periods =

−	One construction method that stems from the Medieval period and flourished in Tudor times is the half-timber framed house with a wattle and daub infill. Whilst one might not necessarily describe this type of wall build-up as solid, because of its light weight nature compared to stone, and despite being made up of different layered materials it is a full depth, through or solid construction. It was usually employed as part of a timber frame building as the infill between the framing elements. Wattle was substrate for the infill, usually wooden strips or thin branches, reeds, grasses or vines woven to form a plate spanning between and fixed to the frame. The wattle substrate was then covered with daub, made up of a combination of binders, clay, lime, chalk dust, etc, aggregates, subsoil, sand, crushed stone etc and reinforcement such as straw, hay and other fibrous materials.	+	One construction method that stems from the Medieval period and flourished in Tudor times is the half-timber framed house with a wattle and daub infill. Whilst one might not necessarily describe this type of wall build-up as solid, because of its light weight nature compared to stone, and despite being made up of different layered materials it is a full depth, through or solid construction. It was usually employed as part of a timber frame building as the infill between the framing elements. Wattle was substrate for the infill, usually wooden strips or thin branches, reeds, grasses or vines woven to form a plate spanning between and fixed to the frame. The wattle substrate was then covered with daub, made up of a combination of binders, clay, lime, chalk dust, etc, aggregates, subsoil, sand, crushed stone etc and reinforcement such as straw, hay and other fibrous materials creating a solid build-up between structural members also full depth, or covered internally.

−	~~between upright stakes. Other materials that can be used as wattle include reeds~~, ~~vines~~, and ~~bamboo~~, and it ~~can aso be formed~~ as a ~~loose panels slotted between timber framing~~	+	Cob buildings, a single material solid wall construction method started to appear in parts of Devon, Cornwall and Wales around the 1400's, at the tail end of Medieval Britain into the Tudor period. This mixture of sandy sub-soil, clay and straw was often shuttered in place creating walls of half to one meter thick, wide enough to create a raised trail for livestock to walk over, thus stamping down the mixture to compact it. It was finished with a lime render and then a lime wash externally as well as in some cases a lime plaster internally creating a breathable hygroscopic massive solid wall build up.

−	~~Cob buildings which were most definitely truly solid wall construction started to appear in the part~~ of ~~Devon~~, ~~Cornwall~~ and ~~Wales around the 1400's~~, ~~at the tail end~~ of ~~Medieval Britain into the Tudor period. This mixture of sandy sub-soil~~, ~~clay~~ and ~~straw was often shuttered in place creating walls of half to one meter thick and enough to create a raised trail for livestock to walk over the wall~~, ~~stamping down~~ the ~~mixture to compact it. Finished~~ with a lime ~~render~~ and ~~lime wash as well as in some cases a lime plaster internally~~ the ~~finished wall building is solid throughout~~	+	In terms of stone, rubble, flint and brick constructions these generally remained solid throughout this period, although two layers of construction was relatively common, such as stone rubble externally and brick internally, the cavity between was normally filled with a rubble and lime mix and the occasional bonding stones joining both layers.

−	~~an considered today to be a breathing~~ wall construction~~. Breathing meaning it is hygroscopic~~, ~~letting moisture in a~~	+	= Victorian period =
		+
		+	It was not until the middle of the Victorian period in England that cavity wall construction started to appear, with the

	usually from around the 1800's up to the		usually from around the 1800's up to the

	[[Category:Articles_needing_more_work]]		[[Category:Articles_needing_more_work]]

Editor at 06:01, 2 June 2023

2023-06-02T06:01:36Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:01, 2 June 2023
Line 37:		Line 37:
	= Tudor, Stuart and Georgian periods =		= Tudor, Stuart and Georgian periods =

−	One construction method that stems from the Medieval period and flourished in Tudor times is the half-timber framed house with a wattle and daub infill. Whilst one might not necessarily describe this type of wall build-up as solid, because of its light weight nature compared to stone, and despite being made up of different layered materials it is a full, through or solid construction.	+	One construction method that stems from the Medieval period and flourished in Tudor times is the half-timber framed house with a wattle and daub infill. Whilst one might not necessarily describe this type of wall build-up as solid, because of its light weight nature compared to stone, and despite being made up of different layered materials it is a full depth, through or solid construction. It was usually employed as part of a timber frame building as the infill between the framing elements. Wattle was substrate for the infill, usually wooden strips or thin branches, reeds, grasses or vines woven to form a plate spanning between and fixed to the frame. The wattle substrate was then covered with daub, made up of a combination of binders, clay, lime, chalk dust, etc, aggregates, subsoil, sand, crushed stone etc and reinforcement such as straw, hay and other fibrous materials.
		+
		+	between upright stakes. Other materials that can be used as wattle include reeds, vines, and bamboo, and it can aso be formed as a loose panels slotted between timber framing

	Cob buildings which were most definitely truly solid wall construction started to appear in the part of Devon, Cornwall and Wales around the 1400's, at the tail end of Medieval Britain into the Tudor period. This mixture of sandy sub-soil, clay and straw was often shuttered in place creating walls of half to one meter thick and enough to create a raised trail for livestock to walk over the wall, stamping down the mixture to compact it. Finished with a lime render and lime wash as well as in some cases a lime plaster internally the finished wall building is solid throughout		Cob buildings which were most definitely truly solid wall construction started to appear in the part of Devon, Cornwall and Wales around the 1400's, at the tail end of Medieval Britain into the Tudor period. This mixture of sandy sub-soil, clay and straw was often shuttered in place creating walls of half to one meter thick and enough to create a raised trail for livestock to walk over the wall, stamping down the mixture to compact it. Finished with a lime render and lime wash as well as in some cases a lime plaster internally the finished wall building is solid throughout

Editor at 04:40, 2 June 2023

2023-06-02T04:40:49Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 04:40, 2 June 2023
Line 19:		Line 19:
	Although there is some evidence that lime was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, it was the Romans who moved from creating dry stone walls (or Cyclopean) walls, onto to sun dried brick walls. These solid walls were built with a base or socle of massive stone upon which sun-dried mud bricks were placed and bonded together with mud, to create solid one or two layer brick walls. It was through the development of a mortared rubble construction called opus caementicium that the Romans moved towards solid walls with roman concrete construction, which was quicker to build with. By around 150 BCEthe Romans commonly used lime as mortars to build solid stone walls. These walls were also solid but made up of two layers built concurrently for speed, firstly an inner core of small stones in mortar (caementa) and then a facing layer of stone or brick. Different names were given to the different facing finishes through the different period; Opus incertum a small block random pattern, Opus reticulatum a rectilinear horizontal pattern of stones, Opus testaceum a brick faced concrete and Opus mixtum rectilinear strips of stones and bricks.		Although there is some evidence that lime was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, it was the Romans who moved from creating dry stone walls (or Cyclopean) walls, onto to sun dried brick walls. These solid walls were built with a base or socle of massive stone upon which sun-dried mud bricks were placed and bonded together with mud, to create solid one or two layer brick walls. It was through the development of a mortared rubble construction called opus caementicium that the Romans moved towards solid walls with roman concrete construction, which was quicker to build with. By around 150 BCEthe Romans commonly used lime as mortars to build solid stone walls. These walls were also solid but made up of two layers built concurrently for speed, firstly an inner core of small stones in mortar (caementa) and then a facing layer of stone or brick. Different names were given to the different facing finishes through the different period; Opus incertum a small block random pattern, Opus reticulatum a rectilinear horizontal pattern of stones, Opus testaceum a brick faced concrete and Opus mixtum rectilinear strips of stones and bricks.

−	A significant number of Roman remains from forts to amphitheatres and to gateways and temples can still be found around the UK, any of which highlight their use of solid stone construction, whilst some near complete buildings can also be found. The lighthouse at Dover Castle, of the old Roman port of Dubris is one of only 3 remaining and still standing Roman lighthouses in the world, and made of solid stone with mortar, as well as largest surviving gateway of Roman Britain at Colchester. It is worth noting that ~~altough~~ many Roman walls may have been constructed as solid layered finished walls, in his monumental set of books, De architectura (On Architecture) Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, wrote possibly the first handbook for Roman architects and indeed possibly the first mention of the benefits of adding a cavity.	+	A significant number of Roman remains from forts to amphitheatres and to gateways and temples can still be found around the UK, any of which highlight their use of solid stone construction, whilst some near complete buildings can also be found. The lighthouse at Dover Castle, of the old Roman port of Dubris is one of only 3 remaining and still standing Roman lighthouses in the world, and made of solid stone with mortar, as well as largest surviving gateway of Roman Britain at Colchester. It is worth noting that although many Roman walls may have been constructed as solid layered finished walls, in his monumental set of books, De architectura (On Architecture) Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, wrote possibly the first handbook for Roman architects and indeed possibly the first mention of the benefits of adding a cavity.

	“…if a wall is in a state of dampness all over, construct a second thin wall a little way from it…at a distance suited to the circumstances…with vents to the open air…when the wall is brought up to the top, leave air holes there. For if the moisture has no means of getting out by vents at the bottom and at the top, it will not fail to spread all over the new wall.”		“…if a wall is in a state of dampness all over, construct a second thin wall a little way from it…at a distance suited to the circumstances…with vents to the open air…when the wall is brought up to the top, leave air holes there. For if the moisture has no means of getting out by vents at the bottom and at the top, it will not fail to spread all over the new wall.”
Line 31:		Line 31:
	= Medieval wall construction =		= Medieval wall construction =

−	After the fall of the Roman Empire around 500 CE and into the Middle Ages, solid stone wall construction continued as a prevelant building material throughout Britain. Medieval builders had a good understanding of engineering and of solid wall construction, often building large temporary timber structures to keep stone walls in place as the lime mortars set, creating increasingly sophisticated Medieval Architecture. A large number of churches were built prior to the battle of Hastings in 1066, many of which stand today, are some of the oldest buildings in England and most are solid wall construction of stone with lime mortar. The oldest is likely to be Beehive cells a ~~monsatic~~ centre Eileach an Naoimh, Argyll, Scotland or St Martin's Church, Canterbury which is the oldest church building in England, and still being used.	+	After the fall of the Roman Empire around 500 CE and into the Middle Ages, solid stone wall construction continued as a prevelant building material throughout Britain. Medieval builders had a good understanding of engineering and of solid wall construction, often building large temporary timber structures to keep stone walls in place as the lime mortars set, creating increasingly sophisticated Medieval Architecture. A large number of churches were built prior to the battle of Hastings in 1066, many of which stand today, are some of the oldest buildings in England and most are solid wall construction of stone with lime mortar. The oldest is likely to be Beehive cells a monastic centre Eileach an Naoimh, Argyll, Scotland or St Martin's Church, Canterbury which is the oldest church building in England, and still being used.

−	During and after the Norman conquest, William the Conqueror ordered the construction of a vast number of castles, towers, ~~Cathedrals~~ and churches across his realm, almost all of which were solid wall stone and most made from Caen stone brought from France. The best known examples of these are Norwich, Lincoln and Richmond Castles, Canterbury Cathedral,, Westminster Abbey and the Tower of London. In general the stone in most ~~medieval~~ castle walls was built within a wooden frame designed to hold it in place while the mortar dried, in some cases for thicker walls, a cavity may have been introduced though it would usually have then been completely filled with rubble. In some examples very wide cavities were created between two single stones walls to house a thin stair case or rampart.	+	During and after the Norman conquest, William the Conqueror ordered the construction of a vast number of castles, towers, cathedrals and churches across his realm, almost all of which were solid wall stone and most made from Caen stone brought from France. The best known examples of these are Norwich, Lincoln and Richmond Castles, Canterbury Cathedral,, Westminster Abbey and the Tower of London. In general the stone in most Medieval castle walls was built within a wooden frame designed to hold it in place while the mortar dried, in some cases for thicker walls, a cavity may have been introduced though it would usually have then been completely filled with rubble. In some examples very wide cavities were created between two single stones walls to house a thin stair case or rampart.

	= Tudor, Stuart and Georgian periods =		= Tudor, Stuart and Georgian periods =

−	~~Later~~, solid wall construction was ~~also made from brick~~. usually from around the 1800's up to the	+	One construction method that stems from the Medieval period and flourished in Tudor times is the half-timber framed house with a wattle and daub infill. Whilst one might not necessarily describe this type of wall build-up as solid, because of its light weight nature compared to stone, and despite being made up of different layered materials it is a full, through or solid construction.
		+
		+	Cob buildings which were most definitely truly solid wall construction started to appear in the part of Devon, Cornwall and Wales around the 1400's, at the tail end of Medieval Britain into the Tudor period. This mixture of sandy sub-soil, clay and straw was often shuttered in place creating walls of half to one meter thick and enough to create a raised trail for livestock to walk over the wall, stamping down the mixture to compact it. Finished with a lime render and lime wash as well as in some cases a lime plaster internally the finished wall building is solid throughout
		+
		+	an considered today to be a breathing wall construction. Breathing meaning it is hygroscopic, letting moisture in a
		+
		+	usually from around the 1800's up to the

	[[Category:Articles_needing_more_work]]		[[Category:Articles_needing_more_work]]

Editor at 17:16, 1 June 2023

2023-06-01T17:16:01Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:16, 1 June 2023
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	= Introduction =		= Introduction =

−	Solid wall (sometimes a called a massive wall) refers to a construction of a single primary material in one layer, or different layered materials that make up a solid wall thickness. As opposed to a cavity wall which is built in layers with at least a central gap filled with air or an air entrained insulation material, to improve weathering resistance or thermal performance. Solid wall construction might be described as the simplest type of wall construction, although some layered solid wall constructions may also be relatively complex in their own way. It is usually most common on historic buildings, or agricultural or out buildings that do not have thermal performance requirements. The most common forms were made with natural stone, as well as processed blocks or fired bricks. Other construction methods, often found on very early vernacular buildings that are made up of a single consistent layer throughout their thickness are cob, adobe, rammed earth as well as straw (bale), reed and grass, these may also referred to as solid construction.	+	Solid wall (sometimes a called a massive wall) refers to a construction of a single primary material in one layer, or different layered materials that make up a solid wall thickness. As opposed to a cavity wall which is built in layers with at least a central gap filled with air or an air entrained insulation material, to improve weathering resistance or thermal performance.
		+
		+	Solid wall construction might be described as the simplest type of wall construction, although some layered solid wall constructions may also be relatively complex in their own way. It is usually most common on historic buildings, or agricultural or out buildings that do not have thermal performance requirements. The most common forms were made with natural stone, as well as processed blocks or fired bricks. Other construction methods, often found on very early vernacular buildings that are made up of a single consistent layer throughout their thickness are cob, adobe, rammed earth as well as straw (bale), reed and grass, these may also referred to as solid construction.
		+
		+	In 2015 the UK Government reported that of the 26 million existing homes in the United Kingdom, over 8 million had solid walls or around 30%, in 2020 the UK Governments "[https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/970064/Detailed_Release_-_HEE_stats_18_Mar_2021_FINAL.pdf Household Energy Efficiency detailed release]" reported that 9% of all properties with solid walls were insulated.

	= Early History =		= Early History =
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	= Roman wall construction =		= Roman wall construction =

−	Although there is some evidence that lime was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, it was the Romans who moved from creating dry (or Cyclopean) ~~massive stone~~ walls, onto to sun dried brick walls. These solid walls were built with a base or socle of massive stone ~~with~~ sun-dried mud bricks placed ~~on top~~ and bonded together with mud, to create solid one or two layer brick walls. It was through the development of a mortared rubble construction called opus caementicium that the Romans moved towards concrete construction, which was quicker to build with. These walls were also solid but made up of ~~different~~ layers ,	+	Although there is some evidence that lime was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, it was the Romans who moved from creating dry stone walls (or Cyclopean) walls, onto to sun dried brick walls. These solid walls were built with a base or socle of massive stone upon which sun-dried mud bricks were placed and bonded together with mud, to create solid one or two layer brick walls. It was through the development of a mortared rubble construction called opus caementicium that the Romans moved towards solid walls with roman concrete construction, which was quicker to build with. By around 150 BCEthe Romans commonly used lime as mortars to build solid stone walls. These walls were also solid but made up of two layers built concurrently for speed, firstly an inner core of small stones in mortar (caementa) and then a facing layer of stone or brick. Different names were given to the different facing finishes through the different period; Opus incertum a small block random pattern, Opus reticulatum a rectilinear horizontal pattern of stones, Opus testaceum a brick faced concrete and Opus mixtum rectilinear strips of stones and bricks.
		+
		+	A significant number of Roman remains from forts to amphitheatres and to gateways and temples can still be found around the UK, any of which highlight their use of solid stone construction, whilst some near complete buildings can also be found. The lighthouse at Dover Castle, of the old Roman port of Dubris is one of only 3 remaining and still standing Roman lighthouses in the world, and made of solid stone with mortar, as well as largest surviving gateway of Roman Britain at Colchester. It is worth noting that altough many Roman walls may have been constructed as solid layered finished walls, in his monumental set of books, De architectura (On Architecture) Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, wrote possibly the first handbook for Roman architects and indeed possibly the first mention of the benefits of adding a cavity.
		+
		+	“…if a wall is in a state of dampness all over, construct a second thin wall a little way from it…at a distance suited to the circumstances…with vents to the open air…when the wall is brought up to the top, leave air holes there. For if the moisture has no means of getting out by vents at the bottom and at the top, it will not fail to spread all over the new wall.”
		+
		+	Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, De Architectura; The Ten Books on Architecture, Book VII, Chapter IV, On Stucco Work in Damp Places; Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan, Harvard University, Harvard University Press, 1914. Vitruvius wrote in the time of Augustus (63 BC – 14 AD) and it is believed that he wrote this around 15 BC.
		+
		+	“this we may learn from several monuments…in the course of time, the mortar has lost its strength…and so the monuments are tumbling down and going to pieces, with their joints loosened by the settling of the material that bound them together… He who wishes to avoid such a disaster should leave a cavity behind the facings, and on the inside build walls two feet thick, made of red dimension stone or burnt brick or lava in courses, and then bind them to the fronts by means of iron clamps and lead.”
		+
		+	Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, De Architectura; The Ten Books on Architecture, Book II, Chapter VII, Methods of Building Walls, 15 BC.
		+
		+	= Medieval wall construction =

−	by around ~~150 BCE commonly used lime as mortars to build~~ solid stone ~~walls~~. ~~The relatively significant number~~ of ~~Roman remains from forts to amphitheatres~~ and ~~to gateways and temples around the UK highlight their use~~ of solid ~~stone~~ construction, ~~whilst some near complete buildings can also be found. The lighthouse at Dover Castle~~, of the ~~old Roman port~~ of ~~Dubris is one of only 3 remaining and still standing Roman lighthouses~~ in ~~the world~~, ~~and made~~ of solid stone with mortar, ~~as well as largest surviving gateway of Roman Britain at Colchester~~.	+	After the fall of the Roman Empire around 500 CE and into the Middle Ages, solid stone wall construction continued as a prevelant building material throughout Britain. Medieval builders had a good understanding of engineering and of solid wall construction, often building large temporary timber structures to keep stone walls in place as the lime mortars set, creating increasingly sophisticated Medieval Architecture. A large number of churches were built prior to the battle of Hastings in 1066, many of which stand today, are some of the oldest buildings in England and most are solid wall construction of stone with lime mortar. The oldest is likely to be Beehive cells a monsatic centre Eileach an Naoimh, Argyll, Scotland or St Martin's Church, Canterbury which is the oldest church building in England, and still being used.

−	~~After the fall of the Roman Empire around 500 CE~~ and ~~into~~ the ~~Middle Ages~~, ~~solid stone wall~~ construction ~~continued as~~ a ~~prevelant building material throughout Britain. Medieval builders had a good understanding~~ of ~~engineering~~ and of solid wall ~~construction~~, ~~often building large temporary timber structures to keep~~ stone walls in place as the ~~lime mortars set~~, ~~creating increasingly sophisticated Medieval Architecture~~.	+	During and after the Norman conquest, William the Conqueror ordered the construction of a vast number of castles, towers, Cathedrals and churches across his realm, almost all of which were solid wall stone and most made from Caen stone brought from France. The best known examples of these are Norwich, Lincoln and Richmond Castles, Canterbury Cathedral,, Westminster Abbey and the Tower of London. In general the stone in most medieval castle walls was built within a wooden frame designed to hold it in place while the mortar dried, in some cases for thicker walls, a cavity may have been introduced though it would usually have then been completely filled with rubble. In some examples very wide cavities were created between two single stones walls to house a thin stair case or rampart.

−	~~relied to a large extent on thrust~~ and counter thrust for stability. This is well demonstrated by the use of flying buttresses to transmit the outward thrust of a vaulted ceiling to a pier outside the building; the pier was surmounted by a heavy pinnacle that acted as a counterweight transferring the force downwards. Jointing techniques became more sophisticat	+	= Tudor, Stuart and Georgian periods =

	Later, solid wall construction was also made from brick. usually from around the 1800's up to the		Later, solid wall construction was also made from brick. usually from around the 1800's up to the

	[[Category:Articles_needing_more_work]]		[[Category:Articles_needing_more_work]]

Editor at 15:21, 1 June 2023

2023-06-01T15:21:02Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:21, 1 June 2023
Line 1:		Line 1:
	= Introduction =		= Introduction =

−	Solid wall ~~construction can refer to~~ a wall ~~made~~ of a single ~~or a~~ primary material in one ~~single~~ layer ~~but may also be used to describe any wall~~ that ~~does not have~~ a cavity ~~or gap at its centre. Whilst some walls are built in layers the end result and overall~~ wall ~~construction might be considered as solid throughout. Other walls are~~ built in layers ~~that have gaps between~~ to improve weathering resistance or thermal performance~~, the gaps may also be infilled with air entrapped material insulants. In both cases these type of wall might be referred to as a cavity wall as opposed to a solid wall~~.	+	Solid wall (sometimes a called a massive wall) refers to a construction of a single primary material in one layer, or different layered materials that make up a solid wall thickness. As opposed to a cavity wall which is built in layers with at least a central gap filled with air or an air entrained insulation material, to improve weathering resistance or thermal performance. Solid wall construction might be described as the simplest type of wall construction, although some layered solid wall constructions may also be relatively complex in their own way. It is usually most common on historic buildings, or agricultural or out buildings that do not have thermal performance requirements. The most common forms were made with natural stone, as well as processed blocks or fired bricks. Other construction methods, often found on very early vernacular buildings that are made up of a single consistent layer throughout their thickness are cob, adobe, rammed earth as well as straw (bale), reed and grass, these may also referred to as solid construction.
−		+
−	Solid wall construction might be described as the simplest type of wall construction (although some layered solid constructions ~~can~~ also be relatively complex~~) and~~ usually ~~found~~ on historic buildings, or agricultural buildings~~, often~~ made with natural stone ~~blocks~~, ~~but also later with manufactured~~ blocks or fired bricks. Other construction methods, often found on very early ~~rural~~ vernacular buildings that are a single ~~layer and~~ consistent throughout their thickness are cob, adobe, rammed earth or straw bale, these ~~are normally~~ also referred to as solid ~~wall~~ construction.	+

	= Early History =		= Early History =

−	Whilst there are many fine line between what constitutes an earth, adobe, cob building, all variations are essentially all solid wall construction~~, whilst~~ the use of straw, reed and grass ~~and the combined use of these~~ natural found materials ~~are suggested~~ to have ~~been~~ as early as 10,000 BCE or before, during the Paleolithic period in parts of Africa. The earliest solid wall adobe buildings are indicated to have been built around 8500 BCE, whilst the oldest existing and standing adobe building is known as the Granaries of the Ramasseum in Egypt, built by Ramses II ~~from the 19th dynasty,~~ around 1,300 BC in Western Thebes.	+	Whilst there are many fine line between what constitutes an earth, adobe, cob building, all variations are essentially all solid wall construction as well as the use of straw, reed and grass in combination as natural found materials. Some of the evidence suggests variations on these construction types to have existed as early as 10,000 BCE or before, during the Paleolithic period in parts of Africa. The earliest solid wall adobe buildings are indicated to have been built around 8500 BCE, whilst the oldest existing and standing adobe building is known as the Granaries of the Ramasseum in Egypt, built by Ramses II around 1,300 BC in Western Thebes.

−	In the UK the earliest dry stone solid wall buildings would have been built during the Neolithic period, and would have been made up of two layers of stone, facing each side and packed with smaller infill stones. Scottish blackhouses as an example date from around 3000 BCE, with dry stone solid walls of over half a metre thickness, and a timber turf roof. Built to house crofters and their livestock during harsh weathers, these buildings were built as solid walls without an earth or lime mortar.	+	In the UK the earliest dry stone solid wall buildings would have been built during the Neolithic period, and would have been made up of two layers of stone, facing each side and packed with smaller infill stones. Scottish blackhouses as an example, date from around 3000 BCE, built with dry stone solid walls of over half a metre thickness, and a timber turf roof. Built to house crofters and their livestock during harsh weathers, these buildings were built as solid walls without an earth or lime mortar.

−	Although variations on solid earth building that may constitute as cob (the term is from the 1300's) probably existed earlier across the globe, the earliest solid cobwork walls are said date from around 1100's. These were called tabya and built in Maghreb and al-Andalus (as described by Ibn Khaldun in the 1300's). Whilst other examples, perhaps from the 1200's such as the great Mosque of Djenné, in Timbuktu or the local Togo houses, constructed of solid walls made of packed mud and straw bricks dried in the sun, stacked and rendered.	+	Although variations on solid earth building that may constitute as cob (the term is from the 1300's) probably existed earlier across the globe, the earliest solid cobwork walls are said date from around 1100's. These were called tabya and built in Maghreb and al-Andalus (as described by Ibn Khaldun in the 1300's). Whilst other examples, perhaps from the 1200's such as the great Mosque of Djenné, in Timbuktu or the local Togo houses, constructed of solid walls made of packed mud and straw or as bricks dried in the sun, stacked and rendered.

	= Roman wall construction =		= Roman wall construction =

−	Although there is some evidence that lime was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, it was the Romans who moved from creating dry (or Cyclopean) massive stone walls, onto to sun dried brick walls. These solid walls were built with a base or socle of massive stone with sun-dried mud bricks placed on top and bonded together with mud to create solid one or two layer brick walls. It was through the development of a mortared rubble construction ~~which~~ called opus caementicium that the Romans moved towards concrete construction, which was quicker to build with. These walls were solid ~~walls~~ but made up of different ~~layers~~ layers,	+	Although there is some evidence that lime was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, it was the Romans who moved from creating dry (or Cyclopean) massive stone walls, onto to sun dried brick walls. These solid walls were built with a base or socle of massive stone with sun-dried mud bricks placed on top and bonded together with mud, to create solid one or two layer brick walls. It was through the development of a mortared rubble construction called opus caementicium that the Romans moved towards concrete construction, which was quicker to build with. These walls were also solid but made up of different layers ,

	by around 150 BCE commonly used lime as mortars to build solid stone walls. The relatively significant number of Roman remains from forts to amphitheatres and to gateways and temples around the UK highlight their use of solid stone construction, whilst some near complete buildings can also be found. The lighthouse at Dover Castle, of the old Roman port of Dubris is one of only 3 remaining and still standing Roman lighthouses in the world, and made of solid stone with mortar, as well as largest surviving gateway of Roman Britain at Colchester.		by around 150 BCE commonly used lime as mortars to build solid stone walls. The relatively significant number of Roman remains from forts to amphitheatres and to gateways and temples around the UK highlight their use of solid stone construction, whilst some near complete buildings can also be found. The lighthouse at Dover Castle, of the old Roman port of Dubris is one of only 3 remaining and still standing Roman lighthouses in the world, and made of solid stone with mortar, as well as largest surviving gateway of Roman Britain at Colchester.

Editor at 15:03, 1 June 2023

2023-06-01T15:03:47Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:03, 1 June 2023
Line 1:		Line 1:
−	Solid wall construction can refer to a wall made of a single or a primary material in one single layer but may also be used to describe any wall that does not have a cavity or gap at its centre. Whilst some walls are built in layers the end result and overall wall construction is solid throughout, other walls have an infill material such as an insulant or just a gap, these miht more commonly be referred to a cavity walls.	+	= Introduction =

−	~~It is the simplest of~~ construction ~~types~~ and ~~therefore usually found on historic buildings,~~ or ~~agricultural buildings~~, ~~often made with natural stone blocks, but~~ also ~~later~~ with ~~manufactured blocks or fired bricks~~.	+	Solid wall construction can refer to a wall made of a single or a primary material in one single layer but may also be used to describe any wall that does not have a cavity or gap at its centre. Whilst some walls are built in layers the end result and overall wall construction might be considered as solid throughout. Other walls are built in layers that have gaps between to improve weathering resistance or thermal performance, the gaps may also be infilled with air entrapped material insulants. In both cases these type of wall might be referred to as a cavity wall as opposed to a solid wall.

−	Other construction methods, often found on ~~vernacular~~ rural buildings that are a single layer and consistent throughout their thickness are cob, adobe, rammed earth or straw bale, these ~~might~~ also be referred to as solid wall construction.	+	Solid wall construction might be described as the simplest type of wall construction (although some layered solid constructions can also be relatively complex) and usually found on historic buildings, or agricultural buildings, often made with natural stone blocks, but also later with manufactured blocks or fired bricks. Other construction methods, often found on very early rural vernacular buildings that are a single layer and consistent throughout their thickness are cob, adobe, rammed earth or straw bale, these are normally also referred to as solid wall construction.

−	Early History	+	= Early History =

−	~~Some~~ of the earliest adobe buildings ~~would~~ have been built around 8500 BCE, whilst ~~in the UK~~ the ~~earliest stone buildings would have as early as Neolithic times~~ and ~~constructed from dry stone walling, such~~ as ~~Scottish blackhouses which date from around 3000 BCE. These buildings would have had walls~~ of ~~over half a metre~~ in ~~thickness and housed crofters and their livestock during harsh weather~~, ~~significantly they were~~ built ~~as solid walls without mortar~~.	+	Whilst there are many fine line between what constitutes an earth, adobe, cob building, all variations are essentially all solid wall construction, whilst the use of straw, reed and grass and the combined use of these natural found materials are suggested to have been as early as 10,000 BCE or before, during the Paleolithic period in parts of Africa. The earliest solid wall adobe buildings are indicated to have been built around 8500 BCE, whilst the oldest existing and standing adobe building is known as the Granaries of the Ramasseum in Egypt, built by Ramses II from the 19th dynasty, around 1,300 BC in Western Thebes.

−	Although there is some evidence that lime was used as plaster by the Egyptians, it was the Romans who moved from creating dry ~~stone~~ (or Cyclopean) massive stone walls, onto to sun dried brick walls. These were built with a base or socle of massive stone with sun-dried mud bricks placed on top and bonded together with mud to create solid one or two layer brick walls. It was through the development of a mortared rubble construction which called opus caementicium that the Romans moved towards concrete construction, which was quicker to build with. These walls were solid walls but made up of different layers layers,	+	In the UK the earliest dry stone solid wall buildings would have been built during the Neolithic period, and would have been made up of two layers of stone, facing each side and packed with smaller infill stones. Scottish blackhouses as an example date from around 3000 BCE, with dry stone solid walls of over half a metre thickness, and a timber turf roof. Built to house crofters and their livestock during harsh weathers, these buildings were built as solid walls without an earth or lime mortar.
		+
		+	Although variations on solid earth building that may constitute as cob (the term is from the 1300's) probably existed earlier across the globe, the earliest solid cobwork walls are said date from around 1100's. These were called tabya and built in Maghreb and al-Andalus (as described by Ibn Khaldun in the 1300's). Whilst other examples, perhaps from the 1200's such as the great Mosque of Djenné, in Timbuktu or the local Togo houses, constructed of solid walls made of packed mud and straw bricks dried in the sun, stacked and rendered.
		+
		+	= Roman wall construction =
		+
		+	Although there is some evidence that lime was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, it was the Romans who moved from creating dry (or Cyclopean) massive stone walls, onto to sun dried brick walls. These solid walls were built with a base or socle of massive stone with sun-dried mud bricks placed on top and bonded together with mud to create solid one or two layer brick walls. It was through the development of a mortared rubble construction which called opus caementicium that the Romans moved towards concrete construction, which was quicker to build with. These walls were solid walls but made up of different layers layers,

	by around 150 BCE commonly used lime as mortars to build solid stone walls. The relatively significant number of Roman remains from forts to amphitheatres and to gateways and temples around the UK highlight their use of solid stone construction, whilst some near complete buildings can also be found. The lighthouse at Dover Castle, of the old Roman port of Dubris is one of only 3 remaining and still standing Roman lighthouses in the world, and made of solid stone with mortar, as well as largest surviving gateway of Roman Britain at Colchester.		by around 150 BCE commonly used lime as mortars to build solid stone walls. The relatively significant number of Roman remains from forts to amphitheatres and to gateways and temples around the UK highlight their use of solid stone construction, whilst some near complete buildings can also be found. The lighthouse at Dover Castle, of the old Roman port of Dubris is one of only 3 remaining and still standing Roman lighthouses in the world, and made of solid stone with mortar, as well as largest surviving gateway of Roman Britain at Colchester.