Fertilizer groundwater pollution - Revision history

Editor at 15:11, 16 September 2021

2021-09-16T15:11:50Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:11, 16 September 2021
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	The way the Nitrate Directive has been implemented has varied across the countries of the EU and so too has its impact. For instance, some countries such as Belgium have decided to make all their territory abide by the rules of NVZs (Downing, 1998).		The way the Nitrate Directive has been implemented has varied across the countries of the EU and so too has its impact. For instance, some countries such as Belgium have decided to make all their territory abide by the rules of NVZs (Downing, 1998).

−	In the report of the 2004-2007 period, 15% of the 31,000 groundwater sampling stations across the EU gave a nitrate concentration of more than the limit of 50mg/l (Environment Agency, 2004) , but 66% gave a reading of below 25mg/l (European ~~Commision~~, 2010). These figures show a generally improving trend across Europe. However, after the last review process implemented in January 2009, 62% of England is within a NVZ (Environment Agency, 2011). It is hoped that pollution will fall in these regions although due to the slow nature of groundwater recharge this is likely to take time.	+	In the report of the 2004-2007 period, 15% of the 31,000 groundwater sampling stations across the EU gave a nitrate concentration of more than the limit of 50mg/l (Environment Agency, 2004) , but 66% gave a reading of below 25mg/l (European Commission, 2010). These figures show a generally improving trend across Europe. However, after the last review process implemented in January 2009, 62% of England is within a NVZ (Environment Agency, 2011). It is hoped that pollution will fall in these regions although due to the slow nature of groundwater recharge this is likely to take time.

	Supporting the Nitrate Directive, the 2000 Water Framework Directive and the 2006 Groundwater Directive both legislate on nitrates aiming to reduce pollution through “clean status” objectives by 2015. (European Commission, 2008)		Supporting the Nitrate Directive, the 2000 Water Framework Directive and the 2006 Groundwater Directive both legislate on nitrates aiming to reduce pollution through “clean status” objectives by 2015. (European Commission, 2008)
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	= Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki =		= Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki =

		+	* Biosolids.
	* Brownfield land.		* Brownfield land.
	* Chalk aquifer.		* Chalk aquifer.

Editor at 19:14, 9 September 2020

2020-09-09T19:14:26Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:14, 9 September 2020
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	Modelling is currently influencing decisions to make exceptions for chalk aquifer regions which will not reach the 2015 targets and increase investment in in-situ aquifer treatment as a solution to the ineffectiveness of land management with chalk. (Jackson et al., 2008)		Modelling is currently influencing decisions to make exceptions for chalk aquifer regions which will not reach the 2015 targets and increase investment in in-situ aquifer treatment as a solution to the ineffectiveness of land management with chalk. (Jackson et al., 2008)

−	= Treatment of problematic ~~Wwater~~ =	+	= Treatment of problematic water =

	There are many different methods of removing nitrates from water, the most common of which in the UK is blending a high nitrate source with a low one (Harris, 1998). This is also the cheapest method providing that the low nitrate source is not far away, however as most high nitrate sources tend to be grouped together it can be unviable.		There are many different methods of removing nitrates from water, the most common of which in the UK is blending a high nitrate source with a low one (Harris, 1998). This is also the cheapest method providing that the low nitrate source is not far away, however as most high nitrate sources tend to be grouped together it can be unviable.
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	As well as treating the water after it has been extracted there is a method for reducing nitrate concentrations in-situ, although this is still yet to be successfully applied at a large scale. The method involves taking advantage of the natural de-nitrification processes that take place in aquifers, with microbes breaking down nitrates in place of oxygen as they respire under anaerobic conditions.		As well as treating the water after it has been extracted there is a method for reducing nitrate concentrations in-situ, although this is still yet to be successfully applied at a large scale. The method involves taking advantage of the natural de-nitrification processes that take place in aquifers, with microbes breaking down nitrates in place of oxygen as they respire under anaerobic conditions.

−	One idea is to introduce an organic carbon feed to stimulate this process and it is hoped it may provide an inexpensive method of nitrate removal in the future. Another experimental method is to ~~install~~ boreholes lined with vegetation and then circulate water from contaminated aquifers to reduce the oxygen content. (Department of the Environment, 1986; Jackson et al., 2008)	+	One idea is to introduce an organic carbon feed to stimulate this process and it is hoped it may provide an inexpensive method of nitrate removal in the future. Another experimental method is to instal boreholes lined with vegetation and then circulate water from contaminated aquifers to reduce the oxygen content. (Department of the Environment, 1986; Jackson et al., 2008)

	There have also been experiments with applying nitrification inhibitors to suppress the transformation of the ammonium nitrate in fertilisers into nitrate in the soil and therefore reduce nitrate leaching (MAFF, 1993).		There have also been experiments with applying nitrification inhibitors to suppress the transformation of the ammonium nitrate in fertilisers into nitrate in the soil and therefore reduce nitrate leaching (MAFF, 1993).
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	* Brownfield land.		* Brownfield land.
		+	* Chalk aquifer.
	* Contaminated land.		* Contaminated land.
	* Deleterious materials.		* Deleterious materials.
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	* Wheater, H., 2006. Understanding Our Groundwater Systems. [Online] Available at: [http://www.groundwateruk.org/downloads/Howard%20Wheater.pdf http://www.groundwateruk.org/downloads/Howard%20Wheater.pdf] [Accessed 21 1 2012].		* Wheater, H., 2006. Understanding Our Groundwater Systems. [Online] Available at: [http://www.groundwateruk.org/downloads/Howard%20Wheater.pdf http://www.groundwateruk.org/downloads/Howard%20Wheater.pdf] [Accessed 21 1 2012].

−	[[Category:Water]] [[Category:Sustainability]]	+	[[Category:DCN_Research,_Development_and_Innovation]] [[Category:Water]] [[Category:Sustainability]]

Designing Buildings at 09:22, 1 January 2020

2020-01-01T09:22:46Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:22, 1 January 2020
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	* Contaminated land.		* Contaminated land.
	* Deleterious materials.		* Deleterious materials.
		+	* Diffuse pollution.
	* Environmental Policy.		* Environmental Policy.
	* Groundwater.		* Groundwater.
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	* Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems.		* Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems.

−	=== External references ===	+	= External references =

	* Baran N., L. M. a. M. C., 2008. Agricultural diffuse pollution in a chalk aquifer (Trois Fontaines,France): Influence of pesticide properties and hydrodynamic constraints. Journal of Hydrology 358, Issue 1-2, pp. 56-69.		* Baran N., L. M. a. M. C., 2008. Agricultural diffuse pollution in a chalk aquifer (Trois Fontaines,France): Influence of pesticide properties and hydrodynamic constraints. Journal of Hydrology 358, Issue 1-2, pp. 56-69.

Designing Buildings at 14:05, 29 March 2019

2019-03-29T14:05:17Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:05, 29 March 2019
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	* Wheater, H., 2006. Understanding Our Groundwater Systems. [Online] Available at: [http://www.groundwateruk.org/downloads/Howard%20Wheater.pdf http://www.groundwateruk.org/downloads/Howard%20Wheater.pdf] [Accessed 21 1 2012].		* Wheater, H., 2006. Understanding Our Groundwater Systems. [Online] Available at: [http://www.groundwateruk.org/downloads/Howard%20Wheater.pdf http://www.groundwateruk.org/downloads/Howard%20Wheater.pdf] [Accessed 21 1 2012].

−	[[Category:Sustainability]]	+	[[Category:Water]] [[Category:Sustainability]]

Editor at 13:13, 12 November 2018

2018-11-12T13:13:23Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:13, 12 November 2018
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	[[File:One.png\|link=File:One.png]]		[[File:One.png\|link=File:One.png]]

−	Figure 1:- Fertiliser nutrient consumption in Europe (European Commission, 2010)	+	Figure 1: Fertiliser nutrient consumption in Europe (European Commission, 2010)

−	= The ~~Problem~~ with ~~Fertilisers~~ =	+	= The problem with fertilisers =

	The majority of fertilisers used contain three main constituents; Nitrates, Phosphates and Potassium, which are all essential to the growth of plants (ncagr, 2012) . The majority the nitrogen is in the form of ammonium nitrate (Isherwood, n.d.).		The majority of fertilisers used contain three main constituents; Nitrates, Phosphates and Potassium, which are all essential to the growth of plants (ncagr, 2012) . The majority the nitrogen is in the form of ammonium nitrate (Isherwood, n.d.).
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	Supporting the Nitrate Directive, the 2000 Water Framework Directive and the 2006 Groundwater Directive both legislate on nitrates aiming to reduce pollution through “clean status” objectives by 2015. (European Commission, 2008)		Supporting the Nitrate Directive, the 2000 Water Framework Directive and the 2006 Groundwater Directive both legislate on nitrates aiming to reduce pollution through “clean status” objectives by 2015. (European Commission, 2008)

−	= The ~~Problem~~ with ~~Chalk~~ =	+	= The problem with chalk =

	The nitrate problem is particularly challenging in areas where the groundwater aquifer is made of chalk. Most of the south of Britain (Figure 2) has a chalk aquifer including the London Basin (Environment, Dep of, 1988). These chalk aquifers are the most important in Britain with 60% of all groundwater coming from them (Jackson et al., 2008). Also, in the South East of England some areas use groundwater for as much as 74% of their public water (Figure 3) (Environment Agency, 2004). Chalk aquifers also provide a lot of groundwater in Northern France including the Paris basin (Baran N., 2008).		The nitrate problem is particularly challenging in areas where the groundwater aquifer is made of chalk. Most of the south of Britain (Figure 2) has a chalk aquifer including the London Basin (Environment, Dep of, 1988). These chalk aquifers are the most important in Britain with 60% of all groundwater coming from them (Jackson et al., 2008). Also, in the South East of England some areas use groundwater for as much as 74% of their public water (Figure 3) (Environment Agency, 2004). Chalk aquifers also provide a lot of groundwater in Northern France including the Paris basin (Baran N., 2008).
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	[[File:Two.png\|link=File:Two.png]]		[[File:Two.png\|link=File:Two.png]]

−	Figure 2 :- Map of main aquifers in England and Wales (Environment Agency, 2004)	+	Figure 2 : Map of main aquifers in England and Wales (Environment Agency, 2004)

	[[File:Three.png\|link=File:Three.png]]		[[File:Three.png\|link=File:Three.png]]

−	Figure 3 :- Public Water supplied by groundwater in the UK (Environment Agency, 2004)	+	Figure 3 : Public Water supplied by groundwater in the UK (Environment Agency, 2004)

	Chalk is a calcareous clay and un-fissured has a low permeability (Environment, Dep of, 1988). While its inter-granular porosity is 30-40%, its pore openings are between 0.2 and 2 μm which prevents water from draining out of the chalk matrix itself (Baran N., 2008), giving it a high storability of nitrates.		Chalk is a calcareous clay and un-fissured has a low permeability (Environment, Dep of, 1988). While its inter-granular porosity is 30-40%, its pore openings are between 0.2 and 2 μm which prevents water from draining out of the chalk matrix itself (Baran N., 2008), giving it a high storability of nitrates.
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	Modelling is currently influencing decisions to make exceptions for chalk aquifer regions which will not reach the 2015 targets and increase investment in in-situ aquifer treatment as a solution to the ineffectiveness of land management with chalk. (Jackson et al., 2008)		Modelling is currently influencing decisions to make exceptions for chalk aquifer regions which will not reach the 2015 targets and increase investment in in-situ aquifer treatment as a solution to the ineffectiveness of land management with chalk. (Jackson et al., 2008)

−	= Treatment of ~~Problematic Water~~ =	+	= Treatment of problematic Wwater =

	There are many different methods of removing nitrates from water, the most common of which in the UK is blending a high nitrate source with a low one (Harris, 1998). This is also the cheapest method providing that the low nitrate source is not far away, however as most high nitrate sources tend to be grouped together it can be unviable.		There are many different methods of removing nitrates from water, the most common of which in the UK is blending a high nitrate source with a low one (Harris, 1998). This is also the cheapest method providing that the low nitrate source is not far away, however as most high nitrate sources tend to be grouped together it can be unviable.
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	To conclude, the issue of nitrate pollution is a challenging one for environmental engineers because of the long length of time associated with remediation and the health risk it poses. A lot of progress has been made over the last 20 to 30 years, with the problem benefiting greatly from robust European legislation and new understanding in the fields of hydrogeology and contaminant dispersion.		To conclude, the issue of nitrate pollution is a challenging one for environmental engineers because of the long length of time associated with remediation and the health risk it poses. A lot of progress has been made over the last 20 to 30 years, with the problem benefiting greatly from robust European legislation and new understanding in the fields of hydrogeology and contaminant dispersion.

−	There is still work to be done in the area with continuing research into new techniques of treatment and modelling, however there has been significant progress in reductions of nitrate concentrations under the current policies with the majority of groundwater sources moving towards lower concentrations.	+	There is still work to be done in the area with continuing research into new techniques of treatment and modelling, however, there has been significant progress in reductions of nitrate concentrations under the current policies with the majority of groundwater sources moving towards lower concentrations.

−	~~= Find out more =~~	+	= Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki =
−		+
−	=== Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki ===	+

	* Brownfield land.		* Brownfield land.
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	* Groundwater.		* Groundwater.
	* Groundwater control in urban areas.		* Groundwater control in urban areas.
		+	* Gypsum.
	* Pollution.		* Pollution.
	* Sustainability.		* Sustainability.

Editor at 14:38, 28 March 2017

2017-03-28T14:38:06Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:38, 28 March 2017
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	= Introduction =		= Introduction =

−	With the outbreak of the Second World War food security became a major issue in Britain, with the government encouraging farmers to increase production. This policy was continued after the war with the 1947 Agriculture Act and, upon joining the Europe Community, the 1973 Common Agricultural Policy, both of which provided incentives for farmers to increase production. One of the biggest contributors to this increase in production was the use of fertiliser nitrogen, which in the UK increased from 200,000 tonnes/year in the mid-forties to approximately 1,580,000 tonnes in 1985. This increasing trend was matched across most of Western Europe, as shown in figure 1, and has resulted in the problems with groundwater pollution. (Department of the Environment, 1986)	+	With the outbreak of the Second World War food security became a major issue in Britain, with the government encouraging farmers to increase production. This policy was continued after the war with the 1947 Agriculture Act and, upon joining the Europe Community, the 1973 Common Agricultural Policy, both of which provided incentives for farmers to increase production.
		+
		+	One of the biggest contributors to this increase in production was the use of fertiliser nitrogen, which in the UK increased from 200,000 tonnes/year in the mid-forties to approximately 1,580,000 tonnes in 1985. This increasing trend was matched across most of Western Europe, as shown in figure 1, and has resulted in the problems with groundwater pollution. (Department of the Environment, 1986)

	[[File:One.png\|link=File:One.png]]		[[File:One.png\|link=File:One.png]]
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	= Modelling the flow through aquifers =		= Modelling the flow through aquifers =

−	Environmental engineers simulate how nitrates work their way into the groundwater once applied in fertiliser so that the impacts of land use management policies can be assessed. To do this they use catchment-scale models, some of which are based on statistical data and others based on physical processes. The ones used most often are simplified, conceptual versions of physics-based models because it is often difficult and expensive to obtain all the data required to calibrate full physics-based models and the statistical models are not adaptable enough to simulate different scenarios. An example of such a model is the Integrated Catchment Nitrogen model (INCA-N), which has been used in the Lambourn and Pang river-systems in Berkshire (Jackson et al., 2008).	+	Environmental engineers simulate how nitrates work their way into the groundwater once applied in fertiliser so that the impacts of land use management policies can be assessed. To do this they use catchment-scale models, some of which are based on statistical data and others based on physical processes.

−	There are specialised models for chalk aquifers due to the complexity of the medium and the variance in time and space of the thickness of the unsaturated zone. One such model is INCA-Chalk, which is based on INCA-N and in some cases can predict nitrate concentrations very well. However, physical models in general suffer from inaccurate historical application data and an incomplete understanding of the physical processes which occur. Using INCA-Chalk on the Lambourn catchment, Jackson et al. (2008) predict that even in the best case scenario of no more nitrates being applied, the historical application in that region will mean concentrations do not decrease until 2060.	+	The ones used most often are simplified, conceptual versions of physics-based models because it is often difficult and expensive to obtain all the data required to calibrate full physics-based models and the statistical models are not adaptable enough to simulate different scenarios. An example of such a model is the Integrated Catchment Nitrogen model (INCA-N), which has been used in the Lambourn and Pang river-systems in Berkshire (Jackson et al., 2008).
		+
		+	There are specialised models for chalk aquifers due to the complexity of the medium and the variance in time and space of the thickness of the unsaturated zone. One such model is INCA-Chalk, which is based on INCA-N and in some cases can predict nitrate concentrations very well.
		+
		+	However, physical models in general suffer from inaccurate historical application data and an incomplete understanding of the physical processes which occur. Using INCA-Chalk on the Lambourn catchment, Jackson et al. (2008) predict that even in the best case scenario of no more nitrates being applied, the historical application in that region will mean concentrations do not decrease until 2060.

	Modelling is currently influencing decisions to make exceptions for chalk aquifer regions which will not reach the 2015 targets and increase investment in in-situ aquifer treatment as a solution to the ineffectiveness of land management with chalk. (Jackson et al., 2008)		Modelling is currently influencing decisions to make exceptions for chalk aquifer regions which will not reach the 2015 targets and increase investment in in-situ aquifer treatment as a solution to the ineffectiveness of land management with chalk. (Jackson et al., 2008)
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	= Treatment of Problematic Water =		= Treatment of Problematic Water =

−	There are many different methods of removing nitrates from water, the most common of which in the UK is blending a high nitrate source with a low one (Harris, 1998). This is also the cheapest method providing that the low nitrate source is not far away, however as most high nitrate sources tend to be grouped together it can be unviable. One option is to use surface water, but it is often of poorer quality and requires costly treatment. Water companies prefer water which comes from confined aquifers as they are generally very low in nitrates. (Environment, Dep of, 1988).	+	There are many different methods of removing nitrates from water, the most common of which in the UK is blending a high nitrate source with a low one (Harris, 1998). This is also the cheapest method providing that the low nitrate source is not far away, however as most high nitrate sources tend to be grouped together it can be unviable.
		+
		+	One option is to use surface water, but it is often of poorer quality and requires costly treatment. Water companies prefer water which comes from confined aquifers as they are generally very low in nitrates. (Environment, Dep of, 1988).

	An alternative treatment is storage of the high nitrate water in reservoirs, using microbiological de-nitrification processes to reduce concentration. This method can be very effective, however it has several disadvantages relating to its susceptibility to algal blooms and the required retention time restricting its provision in areas with high demand. (OECD, 1986)		An alternative treatment is storage of the high nitrate water in reservoirs, using microbiological de-nitrification processes to reduce concentration. This method can be very effective, however it has several disadvantages relating to its susceptibility to algal blooms and the required retention time restricting its provision in areas with high demand. (OECD, 1986)
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	Other methods include managing the rate of extraction from boreholes and the depth and location at which water is taken from the aquifer. It can be the case that slower pumping at a deeper depth in the aquifer produces lower concentrations. Also, by undertaking a hydrogeological study when looking to establish a new borehole, a lower nitrate source can be found, although this can come with extra costs if it is difficult to reach or if it contains unwanted minerals as confined aquifers commonly do. (OECD, 1986)		Other methods include managing the rate of extraction from boreholes and the depth and location at which water is taken from the aquifer. It can be the case that slower pumping at a deeper depth in the aquifer produces lower concentrations. Also, by undertaking a hydrogeological study when looking to establish a new borehole, a lower nitrate source can be found, although this can come with extra costs if it is difficult to reach or if it contains unwanted minerals as confined aquifers commonly do. (OECD, 1986)

−	As well as treating the water after it has been extracted there is a method for reducing nitrate concentrations in-situ, although this is still yet to be successfully applied at a large scale. The method involves taking advantage of the natural de-nitrification processes that take place in aquifers, with microbes breaking down nitrates in place of oxygen as they respire under anaerobic conditions. One idea is to introduce an organic carbon feed to stimulate this process and it is hoped it may provide an inexpensive method of nitrate removal in the future. Another experimental method is to install boreholes lined with vegetation and then circulate water from contaminated aquifers to reduce the oxygen content. (Department of the Environment, 1986; Jackson et al., 2008)	+	As well as treating the water after it has been extracted there is a method for reducing nitrate concentrations in-situ, although this is still yet to be successfully applied at a large scale. The method involves taking advantage of the natural de-nitrification processes that take place in aquifers, with microbes breaking down nitrates in place of oxygen as they respire under anaerobic conditions.
		+
		+	One idea is to introduce an organic carbon feed to stimulate this process and it is hoped it may provide an inexpensive method of nitrate removal in the future. Another experimental method is to install boreholes lined with vegetation and then circulate water from contaminated aquifers to reduce the oxygen content. (Department of the Environment, 1986; Jackson et al., 2008)

	There have also been experiments with applying nitrification inhibitors to suppress the transformation of the ammonium nitrate in fertilisers into nitrate in the soil and therefore reduce nitrate leaching (MAFF, 1993).		There have also been experiments with applying nitrification inhibitors to suppress the transformation of the ammonium nitrate in fertilisers into nitrate in the soil and therefore reduce nitrate leaching (MAFF, 1993).
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	= Who pays for the de-nitrification? =		= Who pays for the de-nitrification? =

−	Due to the diffuse nature of nitrate pollution it can be difficult to assess who should pay for its treatment. Water companies argue that the problem is caused by the agricultural industry and in accordance with the principal that the polluter should pay (~~P.P.P.~~) it is they who they should pay for the remediation action like any other industrial polluter. However, the agricultural industry says that they are already complying with the polluter pays principal by adhering to the European Directives which incur costs and they should not be penalised for following government policy on increasing crop production over the last forty years. (Department of the Environment, 1986)	+	Due to the diffuse nature of nitrate pollution it can be difficult to assess who should pay for its treatment. Water companies argue that the problem is caused by the agricultural industry and in accordance with the principal that the polluter should pay (PPP) it is they who they should pay for the remediation action like any other industrial polluter.
		+
		+	However, the agricultural industry says that they are already complying with the polluter pays principal by adhering to the European Directives which incur costs and they should not be penalised for following government policy on increasing crop production over the last forty years. (Department of the Environment, 1986)

	The authorities can impose fines on farmers for failing to comply with the legislation, but it is often difficult to accurately identify polluters using modelling techniques. The amount of pollution any one individual has caused can be difficult to quantify due to the variability of the amount of nitrate leached into the soil relative to the amount of fertiliser applied. (Department of the Environment, 1986)		The authorities can impose fines on farmers for failing to comply with the legislation, but it is often difficult to accurately identify polluters using modelling techniques. The amount of pollution any one individual has caused can be difficult to quantify due to the variability of the amount of nitrate leached into the soil relative to the amount of fertiliser applied. (Department of the Environment, 1986)
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	= Conclusion =		= Conclusion =

−	To conclude, the issue of nitrate pollution is a challenging one for environmental engineers because of the long length of time associated with remediation and the health risk it poses. A lot of progress has been made over the last 20 to 30 years, with the problem benefiting greatly from robust European legislation and new understanding in the fields of hydrogeology and contaminant dispersion. There is still work to be done in the area with continuing research into new techniques of treatment and modelling, however there has been significant progress in reductions of nitrate concentrations under the current policies with the majority of groundwater sources moving towards lower concentrations.	+	To conclude, the issue of nitrate pollution is a challenging one for environmental engineers because of the long length of time associated with remediation and the health risk it poses. A lot of progress has been made over the last 20 to 30 years, with the problem benefiting greatly from robust European legislation and new understanding in the fields of hydrogeology and contaminant dispersion.
		+
		+	There is still work to be done in the area with continuing research into new techniques of treatment and modelling, however there has been significant progress in reductions of nitrate concentrations under the current policies with the majority of groundwater sources moving towards lower concentrations.

	= Find out more =		= Find out more =
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	* Deleterious materials.		* Deleterious materials.
	* Environmental Policy.		* Environmental Policy.
		+	* Groundwater.
	* Groundwater control in urban areas.		* Groundwater control in urban areas.
	* Pollution.		* Pollution.

Editor at 14:29, 28 March 2017

2017-03-28T14:29:39Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:29, 28 March 2017
Line 105:		Line 105:
	* Deleterious materials.		* Deleterious materials.
	* Environmental Policy.		* Environmental Policy.
		+	* Groundwater control in urban areas.
	* Pollution.		* Pollution.
	* Sustainability.		* Sustainability.
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	* BGS, 2011b. British Geological Society- Nitrate Fluctuation. [Online] Available at: [http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/quality/nitrate_fluctuations.html http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/quality/nitrate_fluctuations.html] [Accessed 21 1 2012].		* BGS, 2011b. British Geological Society- Nitrate Fluctuation. [Online] Available at: [http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/quality/nitrate_fluctuations.html http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/quality/nitrate_fluctuations.html] [Accessed 21 1 2012].
	* BGS, 2011. British Geological Society- Predicting the arrival of peak nitrate concentrations at the water table. [Online] Available at: [http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/quality/nitrate_peaks.html http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/quality/nitrate_peaks.html] [Accessed 21 1 2012].		* BGS, 2011. British Geological Society- Predicting the arrival of peak nitrate concentrations at the water table. [Online] Available at: [http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/quality/nitrate_peaks.html http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/quality/nitrate_peaks.html] [Accessed 21 1 2012].
−	* Cambridge Water, 2009. Meeting the challenges of the next five years and beyond. [Online] Available at: http://www.cambridge-water.co.uk/includes/asp/download_file.asp?id=71 [Accessed 23 1 2012].	+	* Cambridge Water, 2009. Meeting the challenges of the next five years and beyond. [Online] Available at: [http://www.cambridge-water.co.uk/includes/asp/download_file.asp?id=71 http://www.cambridge-water.co.uk/includes/asp/download_file.asp?id=71] [Accessed 23 1 2012].
	* DEFRA, 2002a. Guidelines for farmers in NVZs- England. 1st ed. London: DEFRA.		* DEFRA, 2002a. Guidelines for farmers in NVZs- England. 1st ed. London: DEFRA.
	* DEFRA, 2002b. Manure Planning in NVZs- England. 1st ed. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.		* DEFRA, 2002b. Manure Planning in NVZs- England. 1st ed. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.

86.156.110.111 at 09:00, 27 February 2017

2017-02-27T09:00:43Z

Show changes

Designing Buildings at 11:28, 13 October 2015

2015-10-13T11:28:55Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:28, 13 October 2015
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	*Downing, D., 1998. ''Groundwater - Our Hidden Asset. ''London: British Geological Survey.		*Downing, D., 1998. ''Groundwater - Our Hidden Asset. ''London: British Geological Survey.
	*Elworthy, S., 1994. ''Farming for Drinking Water. ''1st ed. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited.		*Elworthy, S., 1994. ''Farming for Drinking Water. ''1st ed. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
−	*Elyanow, D. & Persechino, J., 2005. ''Advances in Nitrate Removal. ''[Online] Available at: <u>[http://www.gewater.com/pdf/Technical%20Papers_Cust/Americas/English/TP1033EN.pdf http://www.gewater.com/pdf/Technical%20Papers_Cust/Americas/English/TP1033EN.pdf] </u>[Accessed 23 1 2012].	+	*Elyanow, D. & Persechino, J., 2005. ''Advances in Nitrate Removal.''
	*Environment Agency, 2004. ''The state of groundwater in England and Wales, ''Bristol: Environment Agency.		*Environment Agency, 2004. ''The state of groundwater in England and Wales, ''Bristol: Environment Agency.
	*Environment Agency, 2011. ''Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs). ''		*Environment Agency, 2011. ''Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs). ''

Designing Buildings at 11:26, 13 October 2015

2015-10-13T11:26:54Z

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	*Elyanow, D. & Persechino, J., 2005. ''Advances in Nitrate Removal. ''[Online] Available at: <u>[http://www.gewater.com/pdf/Technical%20Papers_Cust/Americas/English/TP1033EN.pdf http://www.gewater.com/pdf/Technical%20Papers_Cust/Americas/English/TP1033EN.pdf] </u>[Accessed 23 1 2012].		*Elyanow, D. & Persechino, J., 2005. ''Advances in Nitrate Removal. ''[Online] Available at: <u>[http://www.gewater.com/pdf/Technical%20Papers_Cust/Americas/English/TP1033EN.pdf http://www.gewater.com/pdf/Technical%20Papers_Cust/Americas/English/TP1033EN.pdf] </u>[Accessed 23 1 2012].
	*Environment Agency, 2004. ''The state of groundwater in England and Wales, ''Bristol: Environment Agency.		*Environment Agency, 2004. ''The state of groundwater in England and Wales, ''Bristol: Environment Agency.
−	*Environment Agency, 2011. ''Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs). ''~~[Online] Available at: [https://www.gov.uk/nitrate-vulnerable-zones&nbsp https://www.gov.uk/nitrate-vulnerable-zones&nbsp]; [Accessed 21 1 2012].~~	+	*Environment Agency, 2011. ''Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs). ''
	*Environment, Dep of, 1988. ''The Nitrate Issue, ''London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office.		*Environment, Dep of, 1988. ''The Nitrate Issue, ''London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office.
	*European Commission, 2010. ''The EU Nitrates Directive. ''[Online] Available at: <u>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/factsheets/nitrates.pdf http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/factsheets/nitrates.pdf]</u> [Accessed 22 1 2012].		*European Commission, 2010. ''The EU Nitrates Directive. ''[Online] Available at: <u>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/factsheets/nitrates.pdf http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/factsheets/nitrates.pdf]</u> [Accessed 22 1 2012].